JOHN  FREDERICK  DUGGAR 


I   i 


ill 


um\ 


AGRICULTURE    FOR   SOUTHERN 
SCHOOLS 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  >ORK   •    BOSTON   •   CHICAGO 
ATVANTA  •    SAN    FUANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO..  Limitbo 

LONDON  •   BOMBAY  •   CALCUTTA 
MKLBOURMK 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA.  Ltb.  i 

TORONTO 

I 


AGRICULTURE 

FOR  SOUTHERN  SCHOOLS 


BY 

JOHN    FREDERICK   DUGGAR 

DIRECTOR   OF  THE  ALABAMA  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 

AND   PROFESSOR    OF  AGRICULTURE   IN   THE   ALABAMA 

POLYTECHNIC   INSTITUTE 


'     '»♦  •  ,  •>  ,  *       e       .        , 

THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1909 

A/i  rights  reserved 

59683 


Copyright,  1908, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.  Published  June,  1908.  Reprinted 
July,  August,  November,  December,  1908;  August,  November, 
1909, 


•/         * 


Vortooatt  Ifirtu 

J.  8.  Cunhlnfr  Co.  —  Korwick  A  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

This  little  book  has  been  written  with  the  hope  of 
supplying  the  need  for  an  elementary  text-book  on  agri- 
culture that  shall  differ  from  others  in  having  a  definite 
and  limited  field,  —  the  South.  While  many  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  agriculture  are  universal,  the  application  of  these 
principles  is  somewhat  local.  By  limiting  the  field  of  a 
text-book  on  agriculture  to  the  Southern  states,  it  becomes 
possible  to  treat  the  subject  in  a  concrete  way ;  to  avoid 
many  generalities  inseparable  from  a  book  intended  for 
use  in  all  latitudes ;  and  to  employ  as  object-lessons  only 
those  plants  that  any  teacher  or  pupil  in  a  Southern  school 
can  easily  obtain.  For  example,  it  is  better  that  a  South- 
ern pupil  study  the  peach  bloom  fresh  from  the  tree  than 
to  read  of  the  flower  of  some  plant  rarely  found  in  the 
orchards  or  fields  in  this  latitude.  The  cotton  bloom,  too, 
affords  a  suitable  example  of  how  flowers  are  constructed. 
This  Southern  point  of  view  also  makes  it  possible  to  give 
fuller,  and  hence  more  teachable,  treatment  to  the  most 
widely  grown  crops  of  the  South. 

The  principal  aims  that  have  guided  the  author  in  writ- 
ing this  book  are  these :  — 

I.  To  arouse  the  interest  of  the  pupil  in  nature,  and 
especially  in  the  common  plants  of  the  Southern  farm, 
orchard,  and  garden. 


yi  PREFACE 

2.  So  to  present  the  subject  that  it  may  be  mastered 
rather  by  stimulated  observation  and  quickened  thought 
than  by  mere  memorizing. 

3.  To  make  a  teachable  book,  —  one  that  will  present 
fewest  possible  difficulties  to  a  teacher  who  has  had  no 
special  training  in  either  the  theory  or  practice  of  agri- 
culture. The  effort  has  been  made  to  lead  the  pupil  by 
easy  steps  from  the  known  to  the  less  familiar  subjects, 
and  from  the  concrete  example  to  the  general  law  or 
principle. 

4.  To  make  the  language  simple  enough  to  be  readily 
understood  by  a  pupil  in  the  sixth  grade  of  the  common 
schools,  and  yet  to  present  the  subject  with  enough  system 
and  substance  to  suit  the  pupils  in  the  high  school 

5.  To  emphasize,  amplify,  and  illustrate  a  few  princi- 
ples, which,  when  understood  and  practiced,  have  the 
power  to  revolutionize  Southern  farm  practice  and  to 
promote  the  permanent  prosperity  of  the  farmer  and  of 
the  state. 

The  author's  experience  as  a  teacher,  his  long  study 
and  practice  of  agriculture,  and  his  association  with  chil- 
dren, lead  him  to  think  that  all  these  aims  can  be  real- 
ized. He  must  leave  to  his  fellow-teachers  of  the  South 
the  verdict  whether  this  book  approaches  his  cherished 
ideals. 

Recognizing  the  fact  that  provision  has  not  been  made 
for  the  special  instruction  of  teachers  in  agriculture  and 
that  many  are  not  familiar  with  farm  practice,  he  adds 
this  message  to  all  such  teachers.  You  can  teach  this 
subject  effectively  even   without   this   acquaintance  with 


PREFACE  vii 

farm  work.  Your  weakness  will  become  your  greatest 
strength  if  it  cause  you  to  step  down  in  this  class  from 
the  teacher's  desk  and  to  be  a  comrade  with  your  pupils, 
—  a  fellow-seeker  after  the  truth  that  none  of  us  can 
know  completely.  Be  a  leader  in  raising  questions  which 
you  need  not  be  ashamed  to  own  that  you  cannot  answer. 
If  you  arouse  the  interest  that  will  make  your  pupils  desire 
an  answer,  you  arouse  in  them  for  the  years  to  come  the 
spirit  of  inquiry  by  means  of  which,  as  men  and  women, 
they  will  educate  themselves.  In  teaching  agriculture, 
humility  is  the  teacher's  proper  attitude,  and  to  show  it  will 
not  forfeit  the  respect  of  either  pupils  or  patrons. 

The  thanks  of  the  writer  are  due  to  the  many  friends 
who  have  lent  a  helping  hand  in  this  work.  Space  does 
not  suffice  for  acknowledgements  to  all,  but  special  thanks 
are  here  tendered  to  my  associates.  Dr.  W.  E.  Hinds,  for 
the  sections  on  insects,  and  Professor  R.  S.  Mackintosh, 
for  numerous  photographs  and  for  critical  reading  of  the 
chapters  on  horticulture ;  to  Miss  F.  E.  Andrews,  and 
other,  lovers  of  flowers,  for  the  sections  on  flower  garden- 
ing; to  Dr.  B.  M.  Duggar,  of  Cornell  University,  for 
writing  the  chapter  on  plant  diseases ;  to  Professor  L.  N. 
Duncan  for  suggestions  and  photographs  for  Figs.  2,  136, 
139-143,  and  215;  to  Miss  C.  M.  Cook  for  drawings;  to 
the  editor,  Dr.  L.  H.  Bailey,  for  many  improvements ;  and 
for  illustrations,  to  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, and  to  the  Experiment  Stations  of  Georgia, 
IlHnois,  Iowa,  Kentucky,  Louisiana,  Michigan,  Minnesota, 

Missouri,  New  York,  and  Ohio. 

THE  AUTHOR. 

Auburn,  Alabama, 
January,  1908. 


CONTENTS 

PAGB 

Section  I.  Introduction i 

The  Plant 7-53 

Section  II.     The  parts  of  the  flower.     Plant  families     .         .        7 

Section  III.     Pollination 12 

Section  IV.     Germination  of  seeds        .         .         .         .         .21 

Section  V.     Water  for  the  plant 28 

Section  VI.  How  plants  get  food  from  soil  and  air  .  .  32 
Section  VII.  How  plants  are  propagated  .  .  .  .  38 
Section  VIII.     Improvement  of  plants 46 

The  Soil 54-85 

Section  IX.     How  the  soil  was  formed.     Kinds  of  soil .         .  54 

Section  X.     Suiting  the  crop  to  the  soil         ....  61 

Section  XI.     Moisture  in  the  soil  ......  65 

Section  XII.     Preparation  and  cultivation  of  the  soil     .         .  70 

Section  XIII.     Terracing  and  draining          ....  74 

Section  XIV.     How  the  soil  becomes  poor    ....  82 

Fertilizing  Materials  and  Fertilizers       .        .        .       86-115 
Section  XV.     How  trees  and  leguminous  plants  improve  the 

soil 86 

Section  XVI.     Barnyard  manure 93 

Section  XVII.  Commercial  fertilizers  .  .  .  .  '97 
Section  XVIII.  Calculating  fertilizer  formulas  .  .  .  102 
Section  XIX.  Suiting  the  fertilizers  to  the  soil  .  .  .  108 
Section  XX.     Lime 112 

Farm  Crops       .        .        . ii6-i8i 

Section  XXI.     Rotation  of  crops 116 

Section  XXII.     Corn .123 

Section  XXIII.  Selecting  or  judging  seed-corn  .  .  .  129 
Section  XXIV.     Wheat,  oats,  rye,  and  barley        .        .         .136 

ix 


X  CONTENTS 

rACK 

Section  XXV.     Cotton 144 

Section  XXVI.     Sugarcane 154 

Section  XXVII.     Sweet  potatoes 162 

Section  XXVIII.     Peanuts  and  watermelons  .         .  165 

Section  X.\ IX.     Legumes  and  inoculation     ....  168 

Section  XXX.     Some  forage  plants 174 

Section  XXXI.     Weeds 182 

Section  XXXII.     The  vegetable  garden        ....     185 

Flowers 192-202 

Section  XXXIII.     Planning  the  flower  garden       .         .         .     192 
Section  XXXIV.     Growing  flowers 197 

Forest  and  Fruit  Trees 203-224 

Section  XXXV.     Forest  trees 203 

Section  XXXVI.     Forest  trees  (^Continued)  ....     208 
Section  XXXVII.     Fruits 215 

Diseases  of  Plants.    Germs  in  the  Soil     .  .      225-245 

Section  XXXVIII.     The  causes  of  diseases  of  plants              .  225 

Section  XXXIX.     Some  diseases  of  fruits     ....  229 

Section  XL.     Diseases  of  oats  and  wheat      ....  233 

Section  X LI.     Diseases  of  Irish  and  sweet  potatoes       .         .  236 

Section  X  LI  I.     Diseases  of  cotton 238 

Section  XLIII.     Germs  in  the  soil 244 

Insects       246-280 

Section  XLIV.     What  an  insect  is 246 

Section  XLV.     How  insects  grow 249 

Section  XLVI.     How  insects  feed 253 

Section  XLVI I.     Insect  enemies  of  the  farmer                .         .  257 

Section  XLVI  1 1.     The  Mexican  cotton-boll  weevil         .         .  264 

Section  XLIX.     Insects  and  health 272 

Section  L.     The  honeybee 277 

Farm  Live-stock 281-313 

Section  LI.     Improvement  of  live-stock         ....     281 

Section  LII.     Horses 284 

Section  LI II.     Beef  cattle 290 


CONTENTS 


XI 


Section  LIV.     Dairy  cattle    .        .        o         , 

Section  LV.     Slieep 

Section  LVI.     Swine 

Section  LVII.     The  management  of  poultry 
Section  LVIII.     Breeds  and  varieties  of  chickens 

Feeding  Live-stock 

Section  LIX.     Principles  of  feeding  animals  . 
Section  LX.     Calculating  rations  for  live-stock 


Dairying    . 

Section  LXI. 
Section  LXII. 


The  production  and  care  of  milk 
Making  butter 


Miscellaneous  . 
Section  LXIII. 
Section  LXIV. 
Section  LXV. 


The  cattle  tick    . 
Farm  implements  and  machinery 
Earth  roads  .... 


295 
299 

303 
306 
310 


314-322 

•  314 
.     3'8 

323-329 

•  323 

•  326 

330-340 

•  330 

•  333 

•  338 


Appendix i-vii 

Fertilizer  equivalents 

Some  fertilizer  formulas 

To  destroy  insects 

To  prevent  or  decrease  diseases  of  plants     .... 

To  measure  grain  approximately 

Dimensions  of  one  acre 

State  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations        .... 
School  gardens 

Index ix-xiv 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  SOUTHERN 
SCHOOLS 


SECTION   I.     INTRODUCTION 

We  all  enjoy  a  trip  to  a  part  of  the  country  in  which 
we  have  never   been.     It  is  the  newness  of   all  we  see 


Photo  by  R.  S.  Mackintosh 

Fig.  I.  —  Awaiting  Discovery 
Does  the  showy  part  of  the  dogwood  consist  of  petals  or  of  whitened  leaves? 

that  excites  our  curiosity  and  interest.     Would  it  not  be 
delightful  if  we  could  constantly  make  discoveries  of  new 


2  AGRICULTURE 

things  about  the  very  places  where  we  live,  and  so  find 
the  same  interest  and  pleasure  that  a  trip  affords  us? 
Some  persons  have  learned  to  do  this.  They  make  dis- 
coveries on  any  day  that  they  spend  in  the  woods  or  fields. 
They  find  flowers  that  they  have  not  noticed  before ; 
they  learn  which  wild  plants  and  weeds  are  kin  to  useful 
plants  that  they  know ;  they  observe  how  plants  provide 
for  their  seed  to  be  carried  by  wind,  or  water,  or  birds,  or 
by  large  animals  to  other  parts  of  the  field  or  pasture. 
They  learn  new  facts  about  animals  and  brooks  and  the 
whole  out-of-doors.  If  we  try  to  observe  the  plants  that 
grow  in  our  woods,  or  field,  or  garden,  or  orchard,  we  shall 
always  be  making  interesting  discoveries  and  gaining  new 
plant  friends. 

There  is  not  only  delight  in  collecting  the  wild  flowers 
and  in  observing  the  trees,  but  there  is  also  pleasure  and 
profit  in  learning  the  nature  and  habits  of  our  cultivated 
plants.  We  will  know  better  how  to  prune  a  peach 
tree,  an  apple  tree,  or  a  grape-vine  if  we  observe  whether 
the  fruit  is  borne  on  new  branches  or  on  those  one  or 
two  years  old.  Notice  this  and  tell  the  teacher  what  you 
observe.  We  shall  be  able  to  select  better  seed  com  if  we 
learn  which  shape  of  ear  or  of  kernel  is  found  in  the  most 
productive  varieties.  Agriculture  deals  with  such  ques- 
tions as  these. 

A  study  of  agriculture  should  enable  pupils  to  under- 
stand better  the  common  plants  and  animals  of  the  farm 
and  cause  them  to  take  more  interest  in  them.  A  book  like 
this  can  give  only  a  few  of  the  most  important  principles 
of    plant  and    animal  growth.     A   knowledge  of   these 


INTRODUCTION 


should  help  one  to  observe  and  to  form  conclusions  about 
the  best  way  to  select,  feed,  and  cultivate  plants  and  to 


Fig.  a.  —  Cotton,  the  Principal  Sale  Crop  of  the  Soutb 


care  for  animals  so  that  farming  may  be  made  more  inter- 
esting and  more  profitable. 


4  AGRICULTURE 

Agriculture  is  the  practice  of  producing  useful  plants 
and  animals.  It  is  based  on  physiology,  botany,  chemis- 
try, and  other  natural  sciences.  It  is  also  an  art  because 
success  in  agriculture  requires  skill  and  experience  and 
business  methods.  In  agricultural  books,  papers,  and 
pamphlets  is  recorded  much  of  the  experience  of  the  best 
farmers.  In  studying  agriculture  we  shall  learn  some- 
thing about  flowers,  fruits,  vegetables,  and  animals,  as 
well  as  about  crops  that  grow  in  the  fields. 

Reasons  for  studying  agriculture.  —  Agriculture  is 
worthy  of  our  most  earnest  study.  It  is  the  industry  that 
furnishes  food  to  all  mankind  and  on  which  many  arts  and 
industries  are  built.  Its  study  teaches  us  how  plants  feed, 
grow,  and  multiply ;  how  man  may  take  common  plants 
and  greatly  increase  their  productiveness,  beauty,  or  hardi- 
ness ;  how  he  may  rear  animals ;  how  a  farmer  may  make 
his  poor  soil  rich,  his  scant  crops  bountiful,  and  his  Ufe 
and  the  life  of  his  family  full  of  comfort  and  pleasure. 
Surely,  it  is  worth  while  to  learn  how  to  make  the  crops 
larger,  the  farm  animals  more  useful  and  profitable ;  how 
to  make  the  garden  and  orchard  yield  a  continuous  supply 
of  vegetables  and  fruits ;  and  how  to  beautify  the  grounds 
around  the  home  and  the  school. 

It  is  worth  while,  too,  for  all  of  us  to  know  how  to  pro- 
tect our  plants  from  disease  and  how  to  conquer  our  insect 
foes.  If  blights,  smuts,  and  mildews  destroy  the  crops 
of  field,  orchard,  or  garden,  knowledge  suggests  ways  of 
preventing  or  destroying  them.  If  caterpillars,  bugs, 
weevils,  and  a  host  of  other  insect  pests  strip  bare  the 
growing  crops  and   despoil  the  stored  grain,  knowledge 


INTRODUCTION 


of  their  lives  and  habits  is  the  weapon  with  which  man 
conquers  them. 

Wherever  farming  has  proved  to  be  profitable,  we  may 
expect  to  find  good  roads,  good  schools,  churches,  libraries, 
telephones,  and  much  else  that  helps  to  make  life  in  the 
country  pleasant  and  attractive.  Even  a  child  may  do  his 
part  in  bringing  these  things  to  pass.     Some  of  the  agri- 


Courlesy  Ky.  Expt.  Station 

Fig.  3.  —  An  Example  of  how  Knowledge  pays 

Above,  the  yield  of  apples  from  one  tree  sprayed  to  prevent  rot ;  below,  the  yield 

of  a  similar  tree  not  thxis  protected. 

culture  that  he  learns  at  school  he  can  promptly  make 
use  of  at  home.  Still  more  of  it  will  be  helpful  to  him  in 
later  years  if  he  becomes  a  farmer.  Best  of  all,  the  study 
of  agriculture  should  enable  him  to  find  a  keener  pleasure  in 
observing  the  ways  of  plants  and  animals,  and  thus  enrich 
his  entire  life,  whatever  may  be  his  future  occupation. 

Even  from  this  book  we  may  learn  how  to  make  the  soil 
richer  year  by  year.  If  we  should  remember  only  this, 
and  forget  all  else,  we  should  be  able  to  help  our  neighbor- 
hood and  our  country  as  well  as  ourselves.     He  serves  his 


6  AGRICULTURE 

country  well  who  transforms  a  poor  and  unprofitable  soil 
into  a  fertile  and  wealth-producing  farm.  He  serves  it  also 
who  aids  in  introducing  a  better  class  of  live-stock  or  in 
producing  better  milk  and  butter. 

Exercise.  —  Secure  a  small  notebook  with  a  hack  that  will  not  easily 
break.  Tic  to  it  a  pencil.  U.se  this  for  your  agricultural  exercises,  and 
for  no  other  purpose.  Before  the  end  of  the  .session  this  little  note- 
book will  be  more  interesting  to  you  than  any  printed  book,  —  and  you 
will  be  an  author. 

As  you  study  this  chapter,  write  in  your  notebook  a  numbered  list  of 
the  plants  you  know.  Write  down  the  names  of  all  the  field  crops 
cultivated  near  your  home.  Opposite  each  write  all  of  its  uses.  Like- 
wise write  a  list  of  the  names  and  uses  of  as  many  kinds  as  you  can  of 
farm  animals  and  poultry. 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  Question  pupils  on  the  text  of  every 
chapter.  Encourage  answers  in  the  language  of  the  child  rather 
than  in  the  exact  language  of  the  book.  Grade  pupils  as  much  on  the 
exercises  at  the  end  of  each  chapter,  and  on  independent  observation,  as 
on  the  text.  By  grades  or  other  means  stimulate  the  pupils  to  bring  to 
the  class  in  agriculture  object  lessons  appropriate  to  the  subject  in  hand. 
Require  notebooks  and  examine  these  often.  You  will  be  helped  in 
teaching  agriculture  by  having  at  hand  "  Exercises  in  Elementary  Agri- 
culture ;  Plant  Production,"  by  Dick  J.  Crosby.  This  bulletin  is  sent 
free  (on  application)  by  the  United  .States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Washington,  D.C.  Procure  bulletins  from  the  Experiment  Station  in 
your  own  state. 


SECTION    II.     THE   PARTS   OF   THE   FLOWER. 
PLANT  FAMILIES 

The  chief  effort  of  the  plant  is  to  produce  seed.  A 
flower  must  be  formed  before  the  seed  can  be  produced. 
Its  beautiful  colors,  its  nectar,  and  its  delicious  perfume 
are  means  to  attract  insects  whose  help  it  may  require  in 
making  seed. 

Mustard  flower.  — As  our  first  example,  we  may  inquire 
what  are  the  parts  of  a  mustard  flower  (Fig.  4).     In  the 


Fig.  4.  —  Flower  of  Fig.  5.  —  Details  of  part 

Mustard  of  Mustard  Flower 


center  of  this  flower  is  a  column,  at  the  top  of  which  is  a 
rounded  knob  {o,  Fig.  5).  The  whole  central  column  is 
called  the  pistil.  Its  important  parts  are  the  ovule  case, 
near  the  base,  in  which  the  seeds  develop ;  and  the  stigma, 
or  knob  at  the  top.  In  some  plants  the  stigma  is  divided 
into  several  parts.  The  surface  of  a  full-grown  stigma  is 
sticky  or  rough,  so  that  pollen,  which  is  the  yellow  dust 
of  the  flower,  may  stick  to  it.     The  ovule  case,  or  ovary, 

7 


AGRICULTURE 


Oifo/y, 


Fio,  6.  —  A  Pistil 


contains  little,  immature,  seed-like  bodies,  called  ovuUs. 
Each  ovule  may  become  a  seed.  But  before  an  ovule  can 
change  into  a  seed,  it  must  be  fertilized; 
that  is,  a  grain  of  pollen  must  fall  upon 
the  stigma  and  grow  down  into  the  ovule, 
after  which  the  latter  becomes  a  seed. 

In  a  circle  just  outside  of  the  pistil  are  a 
number  of  slender  stalks  (six  on  the  mustard 
flower)  called  the  stamens  (1,4,  Fig.  5  ).  The 
most  important  part  of  a  stamen  is  the  cap 
at  the  top.  This  is  the  anther,  or  pollen 
case.  When  the  anther  is  mature,  it  bursts 
and  frees  a  yellow  powder,  called  pollen. 
Soon  after  this  powder  or  pollen  is  shed, 
the  stamen,  now  useless,  dies.  The  pollen  must  be  carried 
by  insects  or  wind  or  otherwise  to  the  sticky  or  rough 
surface  of  the  stigma  in  the  same  or  in  a  different  flower. 
If  pollen  is  not  brought  to  the  stigma,  no  seeds  develop. 

In  a  layer  just  outside  of  the  stamens  is  the  bright- 
colored  part  of  the  flower  (2,  Fig.  5).  This  is  called  the 
corolla.  In  many  plants,  as  in  the  mustard,  it  is  divided 
into  a  number  of  distinct  pieces,  each  being  really  a  colored 
leaf,  called  a  petal.  Fig.  4  shows  that  there  are  four  petals 
in  the  mustard  flower.  In  a  layer  just  outside  of  these 
are  the  green  parts  of  the  flower,  called  sepals  (3,  Fig.  5). 
Let  us  see  whether  most  flowers  have  their  parts  arranged 
in  the  same  order,  the  pistil  in  the  center,  the  stamens  around 
the  pistil,  the  petals  next  to  these,  and  outside  of  all,  the 
sepals. 

Peach   blossom.  —  The   peach   blossom    has  this  same 


THE   PARTS   OF   THE  FLOWER 


arrangement  (Fig.  7).     It  has  one  undivided  pistil.     This 

is  the  part  that  a  fruit  grower  examines  after  a  frost,  for 

he  knows  that  if  the  pistils  are 

killed  there  will  be  no  peaches. 

Notice  that  there  are  numerous 

stamens ;    that    there   are   five 

petals ;  and  that  there  are  five 

sepals,  grown  together. 

Apple  blossom.  —  The  apple 

blossom  (Fig.  8)  is  very  much 

like  that  of  the  peach,  but  its 

pistil  is  divided  into  five  parts. 

Like    the    peach    it    has    five 

petals  and  five  sepals. 

In   all    the    examples    given 

above,  there  has  been  the  same 

number  of  petals  as  of  sepals. 

This  is  often  true. 

Cotton    flower. — The   cotton 

bloom  is  formed   on   the  plan 

of   fives  (Fig.  9).      There  are 

five  showy  petals,  and  also  five  short  sepals.     These  last 

are  grown  together  and 
form  a  shallow  cup, 
which  incloses  the  base 
of  the  boll.  The  three 
large  green  parts  that 
form  the  square  are  not 
sepals,    but    bracts,    or 

leaf-like  extra  parts.     You  also  find  bracts  around  some 


Photo  by  R.  S.  Mackintosh 

Fig.  7.  —  Peach  Blooms 


Fig.  8.  —  Flowers  of  the  Apple 


lO 


AGRICULTURE 


Fic.  9.  —  Section  of  Cotton 
Bloou 


Other  flowers,  for  example,  around  the  strawberry  blossom 
and  the  head  of  the  sunflower. 

There  are  usually  four  or  five  divisions  of  the  pistil  in 
the  cotton  bloom.     From  the  number  of  these  you  will 

find  that  you  can  foretell  how 
many  locks  of  cotton  there  will 
be  in  any  boll ;  for  there  will 
be  just  as  many  locks  in  the 
boll  as  there  are  divisions  of 
the  pistil. 

The  stamens  in  the  cotton 
bloom  are  numerous.  Their 
lower  parts  or  stalks  grow 
together  to  form  a  tube  sur- 
rounding the  pistil. 
Plant  families.  —  Plants  that  produce  blooms  are  divided 
into  more  than  two  hundred  families.  A  family  of  plants 
generally  includes  the  kinds  that  form  their  flowers  in  the 
same  general  way.  For  example,  the  Bean  family  in- 
cludes the  garden  pea,  the  sweet-pea,  the  field  or  cowpea, 
the  locust  tree,  all  kinds  of  clovers,  and  many  others.  If 
you  will  pick  from  a  clover  head  a  single  tiny  flower, 
you  will  see  that  its  parts  have  the  same  general  shape 
and  arrangement  as  the  large  flowers  of  the  garden  pea,  of 
the  cowpea,  or  of  the  beautiful  sweet-pea. 

Perhaps  you  can  find  out  what  resemblances  there  are 
between  the  flowers  of  the  blackberry,  the  strawberry,  the 
apple,  the  pear,  the  peach,  the  plum,  and  the  wild  rose. 
These  all  belong  to  the  very  large  Rose  family,  which 
includes  most  of  our  fruits  and  berries. 


THE   PARTS   OF   THE   FLOWER 


II 


It  will  be  easy  for  you  to  find  scores  of  plants  that  be- 
long to  the  immense  family  of  the 
Grasses.  After  carefully  examining 
several  well-known  grasses,  like  crab 
grass,  examine  plants  of  corn  and  oats 
and  see  how  many  resemblances  to 
grasses  you  find  in  these  useful  crop 
plants.  These  and  other  grains  are 
grasses  (Fig.  lo).  "^^^^i^l^fV^ '  ^^at 


Exercise.  —  In  every  large  flower  you 
find,  point  out  (i)  the  pistil,  (2)  the  stamens, 
(3)  the  petals,  and  (4)  the  sepals.  Find  the 
pollen  in  all  the  flowers  you  examine.  Does 
it  show  in  young  flower-buds  ?  Why  is  there 
little  or  no  pollen  in  flowers  that  are  nearly 
ready  to  wither  or  drop? 

Collect  all  the  cultivated  and  wild  plants 
that  you  can  find  having  blossoms  shaped  like 
those  of  the  sweet-pea  or  bean.  In  your  note-  ^^^  10.  — Oat  Flower, 
book  write  the  names  of  all  these  pea-like  opened  to  show  Sta- 
plants  that  you  know.  Leave  a  long  blank 
space  and  keep  adding  to  this  list  all  through 
the  season.  Examine  every  kind  of  plant  that 
you  have  ever  heard  called  a  clover  to  see  whether  its  separate 
blossoms  have  the  shape  of  a  pea  or  sweet-pea  bloom. 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  Devote  as  much  time  as  possible  to 
having  pupils  point  out  the  parts  of  each  flower  that  may  be  brought  to 
the  class.  Have  them  place  in  separate  piles  (i)  all  the  pea-like 
flowers,  (2)  all  the  flowers  that  seem  to  them  kin  to  the  roses  and 
blackberries,  and  (3)  all  the  grasses.  Probably  one  or  two  reviews 
of  this  chapter  must  be  given  so  as  to  afford  time  for  examination  of 
every  flower  that  is  brought  in. 


MENS  (s),    AND    StIGMAS 
(st),    ENLARGED.      (After 

Roberts  and  Freeman.) 


SECTION  III.     POLLINATION 

While  you  have  been  learning  the  names  of  the  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  flowers,  you  have  perhaps  been  thinking 
about  the  uses  of  each  part.  The  sepals  and  petals  serve 
to  protect  the  more  important  parts  inside.  For  example, 
the  peach  sepals  and  petals  while  still  folded  together  in 
the  bud  keep  the  pistil  from  being  killed  by  slight  frosts 
in  the  early  spring ;  thus  the  peach  crop  is  sometimes 
saved.  That  the  stamens  and  pistils,  however,  are  more 
important  than  the  sepals  and  petals  can  be  proved  by  care- 
fully removing  all  of  the  petals  from  a  flower  of  cotton 
or  from  a  peach  blossom.  In  spite  of  this  injury,  a  boll 
or  a  peach  will  form  if  pollen  is  applied  to  the  stigma. 

Flowers  without  petals.  —  Since  the  flower  makes  seed 
or  fruit  by  means  of  the  stamens  and  pistil  alone,  these 
two  parts  are  called  the  necessary  or  essential  parts. 
The  flowers  of  many  plants  have  no  showy  sepals  and 
petals.  The  sepals  and  the  petals  are  not  strictly 
necessary.  When  you  see  the  flowers  of  corn  and  wheat 
you  may  not  think  of  them  as  flowers,  because  they  have 
no  gay  colors.  The  bees  and  other  insects  do  not  often 
visit  such  flowers. 

Function  or  use  of  the  pistil.  —  The  pistil  is  the  part  of 
a  flower  that  develops  into  the  seed-case  or  fruit.     In  its 

la 


POLLINATION 


13 


base  it  contains  the  tiny  ovules  which  may  develop  into 
seeds.  There  will  be  no  fruit  or  seed  formed  if  the  pistil 
is  destroyed. 

Function  or  use  of  pollen.  —  The  part  of  the  stamen  that 
is  most  important  is  the  pollen  or  plant 
dust.  This  is  a  fine  powder  and  is  set 
free  by  the  opening  of  the  little  pollen 
case,  or  anther,  at  the  tip  end  of  the 
stamen.  Pollen  must  adhere  to  and 
grow     into     the     pistil 

(and  enter  the  ovule  be- 
fore seed  contained  in 
the  pistil  can  develop. 
You  may  learn  the  im- 
portance of  the  pollen 
to  the  plant  by  carefully 
picking  off  all  the  sta- 
mens of  a  nearly  open  flower  bud  of  cotton 
or  peach  or  other  plant.  Then  tie  a  small 
paper  sack  over  the  injured  bloom  to  keep 
the  pollen  of  other  flowers  from  being 
brought  in  by  wind  or  insects.  In  a  few 
days  you  will  find  that  the  pistil  to  which 
no  pollen  can  gain  access  does  not  grow, 
but  generally  dies  and  falls.  If  it  lives 
it  produces  no  perfect  seed.  At  the  same 
time,  other  pistils,  on  whose  stigmas  you 
have  noticed  tiny  grains  adhering,  will 
be  growing  (Figs.  12,  13,  14). 
If  you  tie  a  paper  bag  tightly  over  a  young  corn  ear 


Fig.  II.  —  Pistil  and 
Stamens  (Tulip) 


Fig.  12. — Tobacco 
Flower 


14 


AGRICULTURE 


before  the  silks  show,  and  keep  it  there,  no  grains  will 
form  on  that  cob.  This  is  because  no  pollen  falls  on  the 
silks,  which  are  the  pistils  of  an  car  of  corn.  For  the 
same  reason,  if  you  cut  the  young  silks  from  one  side  of 
an  ear  shoot,  no  grains  will  grow  on  that  side.  Every  silk 
is  connected  with  a  grain  space  on  the  cob,  and  if  that  silk 


Fio.  13.  —  Sound  and  Good  To- 
bacco Seed  where  there  was 
AN  Abundance  of  Pollen 
Applied 


Fig.  14.  —  Chaff,  instead  of 
Tobacco  Seed,  where  no 
Pollen    was   allowed    to 

REACH  the  StICUA 


catches  no  pollen,  a  vacant  grain  space  is  left  on  the  cob 
where  this  silk  arises. 

Pollen  does  not  cause  fruit  or  seed  to  grow  or  be  pro- 
duced unless  the  plant  that  bore  it  is  of  the  same  kind 
as,  or  closely  related  to,  the  plant  on  whose  pistil  it  is  placed. 
Thus  peach  pollen  is  useless  on  apple  blossoms.  The  pol- 
len may  come  from  the  same  flower  of  which  the  pistil  is 
a  part,  from  another  flower  of  the  same  plant,  or  from  a 
different  plant. 


POLLINATION  1 5 

Self -pollinated  plants.  —  In  the  flowers  of  wheat,  oats, 
and  peas,  the  pistil  is  usually  pollinated  by  the  pollen  that 
is  produced  in  the  same  flower.  Such  plants  are  said  to 
be  self-pollinated.  Self-pollinated  plants  do  not  mix  with 
other  kinds  in  the  field. 

Cross-pollinated  plants.  —  On  the  other  hand,  the  pistils 
of  some  kinds  of  plants  generally  receive  pollen  that  grows 
on  a  different  plant.  Such  plants  are  said  to  be  cross- 
pollinated.  If  a  farmer  grows  a  white  and  a  yellow 
variety  of  corn  side  by  side,  these  will  be  mixed  in  a  few 
years.  This  is  because  the  light  pollen  dust  from  one 
kind  is  carried  by  the  wind  to  the  silks  of  the  other  kind. 
Many  a  boy  has  had  his  patch  of  popcorn  ruined  by 
planting  it  near  field  corn  that  bloomed  at  the  same  time 
as  the  popcorn.  You  have  perhaps  noticed  the  pollen  of 
corn  as  it  was  carried  by  the  wind,  like  fine  dust.  You 
have  probably  also  noticed  in  the  spring  clouds  of  yellow- 
ish dust  blown  from  the  pine  trees.  This  dust  is  light 
pollen  carried  by  the  wind. 

How  insects  help  the  flowers  to  form  seed.  —  Some  plants 
have  heavy  pollen,  which  the  wind  cannot  so  easily  carry. 
Cotton  is  one  of  these.  Such  plants  generally  have  gayly 
colored  petals  that  attract  the  insects.  Even  children 
like  to  taste  nectar  by  touching  the  tongue  to  a  blossom  of 
honeysuckle  after  its  petals  are  removed.  The  flower  of- 
fers nectar  to  insects  and  in  return  the  insects  usually 
bring  pollen  from  a  blossom  of  the  same  kind  and  place 
this  on  the  pistil.  If  we  notice  a  bee  as  it  enters  a  flower, 
we  observe  that  much  yellow  dust  adheres  to  its  body. 
This  is  pollen  that  it  rubs  against  while  visiting  other 


|6 


AGRICULTURE 


flowers.  While  it  is  in  the  blossoms,  it  usually  happens 
to  brush  against  the  sticky  or  rough  stigma,  which  catches 
some  of  the  pollen  it  brings.  It  is  interesting  to  watch 
the  movements  of  the  insects  when  they  are  thus  helping 
the  flower  to  form  seed. 

Gardeners  who  grow  tomatoes  in  the  greenhouse  col- 
lect the  pollen  and  place  it  on  the  flowers  by  using  a  brush 
(Fig.   15).      If    they   fail   to   do   so,   they   get  very   few 


Courleiy  Mich.  tUpt.  aiatUia 

Fig.  15.  —  Pollination  of  Tomatoes 

The  two  on  the  right  grew  from  pistils  abundantly  supplied  with  pollen;  the  two 
on  the  left  from  pistils  receiving  but  little  pollen. 


tomatoes.  If  there  were  many  large  insects  in  the  green- 
house, they  might  not  need  to  take  this  trouble.  We  do 
not  need  to  practice  this  hand  pollination  when  tomatoes 
are  grown  in  the  garden,  for  then  insects  might  do  this 
useful  work  instead  of  human  hands. 

In  one  locality  the  fruit-growers  thought  that  bees  were 
injuring  their  ripe  fruits,  and  accordingly  made  the  keepers 
of  bees  remove  their  hives.  As  a  result,  the  fruit  crop  de- 
creased.    Then  the  bees  were  brought  back,  and  the  crop 


POLLINATION  1 7 

at  once  increased.  If  the  weather,  when  fruit  trees  are  in 
bloom,  is  so  cold  or  rainy  that  the  bees  do  not  fly  from 
flower  to  flower,  the  crop  of  fruits  is  usually  small. 

Cross-pollinated  plants  (those  that  need  to  get  pollen 
from  other  plants  of  the  same  kind)  can  be  divided  into 
two  classes,  first,  those  whose  pollen  is  carried  from  one 
plant  to  another  by  wind ;  second,  those  whose  pollen  is 
carried  by  insects. 

Why  strawberries  sometimes  fail  to  bear.  —  A  gardener 

once  had  a  well-worked    strawberry  bed  that  showed  a 

mass  of  leaves  and  runners,  but  yielded 

few  berries.     This  was  because  he  had 

planted   only  one  variety,   and  that  one 

variety    did     not    have    well  -  developed 

stamens.       His     patch     of     strawberries 

would  have  borne  good  crops  if  he  had  ^ 

°  '■  Fig.  i6.  —  Flower 

planted   every   fourth    row   with  another      or  Strawberry 

variety  having  stamens  as  well  as  pistils,      with  both  Pistils 
J  >=>  ^  AND  Stamens 

From  this  you  see  it  pays  to  know  some- 
thing about  how  plants  are  supplied  with  pollen.  Imper- 
fect varieties  of  strawberries  are  called  pistillate  varieties, 
because  they  have  pistils  only,  and  the  perfect  kinds  are 
called  statninate  or  perfect  varieties,  because  they  have 
stamens  as  well  as  pistils  (Fig.  i6). 

Why  the  fruit  crop  sometimes  fails.  —  Even  when  the 
flowers  contain  both  stamens  and  pistils,  there  is  often  a 
failure  to  produce  fruit.  This  is  likely  to  happen  when  a 
single  variety  of  grapes,  pears,  or  apples  is  planted  alone 
and  away  from  all  other  varieties  of  the  same  fruit. 
Some  varieties  of  these  fruits  must  get  pollen  that  has 


l8  AGRICULTURE 

grown  on  a  different  variety.     The  pollen  of  a  Duchess 
pear,  for  example,  when  it  falls  on  the  pistils  of  a  Bart- 

Fig.  17.  —  Brighton  Grapes,  SELr-rERTiLiZKD 

lett   pear  tree  will  cause  fruit  to  grow ;  but  generally  no 
pear  develops  when  the  pollen  from  a  Duchess  tree  falls 


After  N.  T.  Slato  BsywlaiMl  iMlaa 
Fto.  18.  —  Brighton  Grapes,  cross-fertiuzed 

on  the  pistils  of  another  Duchess  tree.  Trees  or  grape- 
vines that  act  thus  are  said  to  have  pollen  that  is  impo- 
tent (powerless)  on  blossoms  of  the  same  variety.     Im- 


4»0LLINATI0N 


19 


potent  pollen  is  one  of  nature's  many  ways  of  preventing 
self-pollination  (Figs.  17  and  18). 

In  planting  an  orchard  or  vineyard  for  home  use  it  is 
a  good  rule  to  plant  several  varieties  of  apples,  several 
of  pears,  and  several  of  grapes,  so  that  one  variety  may 
supply  pollen  for  the  blossoms  of  the  others. 

Pistils  and  stamens  in  different  parts  of  the  same  plants. 
— We  have  called  the  pistils  and  the  stamens  the  essential 
parts  of  a  flower  because  both  are  necessary  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  seeds.  When  one  flower  bears  both  stamens 
and  pistil,  it  is  called  a  perfect  flower.  But  the  pistil 
and  the  stamens  are  not  always  found  in  the  same  flower. 
In  the  corn  plant,  for  example,  the  silks  are  the  pistils, 
while  the  stamens  from  which  comes  the  pollen  are  found 
in  the  tassel,  another  part  of  the  same  plant.  Thus  you 
see  that  in  corn  the 
staminate  flowers  are 
borne  on  the  top  of  the 
plant  and  the  pistillate 
on  the  young  ears  of 
corn  growing  on  the 
stalks  of  the  same  plant. 

On  a  squash,  cucum- 
ber (Fig.  19),  or  water- 
melon the  pistillate 
blossom  may  be  known  by  the  little  squash  or  melon  which 
shows  below  its  yellow  petals.  These  blossoms  have  pistils 
but  no  stamens.  In  other  parts  of  the  same  plants  are 
staminate  blossoms,  that  have  stamens,  but  no  pistils  and 
no  swollen  part.      Among  other  plants   having  stamens 


Fig.  19.  —  Cucumber  Flowers 
On  left,  pistillate;  on  right,  staminate. 


20  AGRICULTURE 

and  pistils  borne  on  the  same  plant,  but  not  in  the  same 
flower,  are  the  castor  bean,  the  oak,  and  the  pecan. 

Pistils  and  stamens  are  sometimes  on  different  plants. — 
This  is  the  case  with  hemp,  willows,  and  poplars. 

Exercise.  — Tie  paper  bags  or  pieces  of  tough  paper  snugly  around 
the  unopened  buds  of  any  kind  of  plants  that  may  be  blooming  when 
you  study  this  lesson.  In  a  week  notice  whether  the  pistil  is  growing 
and  seeds  are  forming  If  so,  these  plants  do  not  need  visits  from 
insects,  but  are  self-pollinated.  Notice  what  flowers  are  being  visited 
by  insects  and  especially  by  honey  bees.  Notice  the  kind  of  insect. 
Watch  them  to  learn  whether  they  brush  off"  any  pollen  of  another 
flower  against  the  pistil. 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  If  a  catalogue  of  some  nursery  company 
can  be  had,  examine  its  list  of  strawberries  and  by  questioning  the 
pupils  learn  which  of  these  varieties  arc  grown  near  the  school.  Have 
they  fruited  well?  If  not,  are  they  marked  in  the  catalogue  as  pistH- 
late  varieties?  Blooms  of  pumpkins  or  of  any  kind  of  melon  make  a 
good  subject  for  examination  and  discussion  in  this  lesson.  The 
questioning  on  all  lessons  should  be  more  to  encourage  observation  and 
understanding  than  to  measure  memory  work. 


Fig.  ao.  —  Section  lengthwbk 
THROCCH  A  Pistillate  Squash 
Blossou 
0,  ovule  case;  c,  Inuc  of  coroUa. 


SECTION    IV.     GERMINATION   OF   SEEDS 

The  seeds  have  been  called  the  children  of  the  plant. 
The  parent  plant  provides  the  seeds  with  food  enough  to 
serve  them  until  the  young  plants  have  formed  roots  and 
leaves  with  which  to  gather  their  own  food. 

Food  for  the  young  plant.  —  Let  us  examine  a  grain  of 
corn  to  see  how  the  plant  packs  up  the  good  things  for  its 
seed  children.     Soak  a  few  dozen  grains  of  corn  in  water 
over   night   so    that    for    to-morrow's 
lesson  you  may  be  better  able  to  sepa- 
rate their  parts.     Outside  is  the  tough 
coat,  which  you  will  remove  from  the 
soaked   kernels.     With  a  sharp  knife 

you  will    cut   crosswise   through    a    dry    ^^°-  21— Cross-section 

THROUGH  A  CORN  KeR- 

or  soaked  kernel,  with  its  groove  side      nel 

up.       You  will  probably  be   able    to    see    a,  germ;   h,  hard  starchy 

first  a  cream-colored   portion  or  germ      ^^^^'}   1'    '°^'  ""^'"'^ 

'■  "  starchy  layer. 

next  to  the  groove  and  near  the  tip  of 

the  kernel ;    second,  a  layer  of   soft  white  starch ;    and 

third,  a  harder  whitish   layer,   also   made   up   chiefly  of 

starch. 

The  germ  is  the  only  part  of  the  grain  that  sprouts.  It 
may  be  called  the  baby  plant.  The  two  layers  of  starch 
and  other  materials  are  placed  near  at  hand  only  to  sup- 
ply the  germ  with  food  when  it  first  wakes  to  begin  its 


22 


AGRICULTURE 


growth.     If  it  is  not  too  cold,  plant  several  dozen  grains 
of  corn  either  in  the  ground  or  in  a  little  box  inside  a 


After  V.  8.  Dcpt.  Agr. 

Fio.  22.  —  Corn  Grains  planted  at  Various  Depths 
IN  A  Box  WITH  Glass  Sides 

window  (Fig.  22).     Dig  up  a  few  of  these  every  day  to 
learn  how  the  young  plant  grows. 

Roots  grow  near  the  tip  end.  —  The  sprouting  of  seeds  is 
called  germination.  When  you  dig  up  seeds  that  have 
begun  to  sprout,  you  find  that  a  little  root  has  started 
downward,  and  that  a  little  shoot  has  grown  upward  to 
make  the  above-ground  part  of  the  plant 

E\PERi.MENT.  —  Each  day  the  root  and  shoot  become  longer. 
Find  whether  the  root  grows  only  near  the  tip,  or  whether  all  parts 
of  it  lengthen.  To  learn  this,  make  two  marks  with  India  or  draw- 
ing ink  or  other  "fast"  color  on  a  white  root  that  is  alx>ut  an  inch 
or  an  inch  and  a  half  long.  Lay  a  ruler  by  the  side  of  the  root  and  make 
the  first  mark  a  quarter  of  an  inch  from  the  tip  of  the  root ;  make  the 
other  mark  half  an  inch  nearer  the  grain.    A  black  thread  may  be  tied 


GERMINATION   OF   SEEDS  23 

around  the  root  as  a  marker  instead  of  using  drawing  ink.  Keep  the 
sprouted  grain  moist  by  placing  it  in  damp  sand  or  between  moist 
blotting  papers  kept  either  in  a  small  tight  box  or  between  two  saucers. 
After  a  day  or  two  measure  the  distance  between  the  two  marks,  which 
you  will  find  to  be  unchanged.  Now  measure  from  the  outer  mark  to 
the  tip  of  the  root  and  you  will  find  that  this  portion  has  grown 
rapidly. 

Roots  of  all  plants  increase  in  length  only  near  the  tips. 
However,  if  you  make  measurements  of  the  stems  of  young 
plants,  you  will  find  that  all  parts  of  the  young  stem,  as 
well  as  the  tip,  increase  in  length  until  a  certain  age  is 
reached. 

Moisture  necessary  to  make  seed  sprout.  —  Did  anybody 
in  this  class  ever  plant  seed  when  the  ground  was  dry  and 
when  no  rain  fell  soon  afterwards  ?  Did  any  seed  come 
up  .''  You  can  prove  that  seeds  need  moisture  in  order  to 
germinate,  by  planting  some  seeds  in  two  tomato  cans  in 
the  window ;  keep  the  soil  in  one  can  very  dry  and  in  the 
other  barely  moist.     What  happens  ? 

Heat  required  for  germination.  —  Oats  that  were  sown 
during  very  cold  weather  have  sometimes  remained  un- 
sprouted  for  a  month.  When  the  sowing  was  done  in 
warmer  weather,  they  came  up  in  about  one  third  of  that 
time.  Seeds  of  different  plants  require  very  different 
amounts  of  heat  to  wake  them  and  make  them  sprout  or 
germinate.  Seeds  of  wheat,  oats,  rye,  and  barley  germinate 
when  the  soil  is  quite  cool,  and  so  the  farmer  sows  these 
crops  during  the  colder  part  of  the  year.  Corn  grains 
require  more  heat  than  oats,  but  less  than  the  seeds  of 
cotton,  cowpeas,  or  peanuts.  A  farmer  never  plants  these 
last  crops  until  the  soil  has  become  somewhat  warm. 


24  AGRICULTURE 

Sprouting  seeds  need  air.  —  Corn  planted  in  a  field  that 
was  afterwards  overflowed  by  a  creek  for  several  days 
failed  to  come  up.  It  was  because  the  water  kept  the  air 
away  from  the  seeds. 

Three  conditions  for  germination.  —  We  now  understand 
that  for  a  seed  to  germinate  it  must  have  moisture,  air, 
and  the  proper  amount  of  heat. 

How  food  is  stored  for  the  young  bean.  —  You  may  soak 
or  plant  peanuts,  beans,  or  cowpeas  to  learn  another  way 
in  which  parents  pack  plant-food  for  the  use  of  the  infant 
plants.  By  carefully  removing  the  seed-coat  from  the 
soaked  seed  you  find  that  all  the  seeds  are  made  up  chiefly 
of  two  thick  "  halves,"  which  later  will  become  the  seed- 
leaves,  or  first  pair  of  leaves.  These  "  halves  "  are  storage 
places  or  pantries  for  the  food  hidden  away  by  the  parent 
plant  for  its  seed-children  while  too  young  to  get  food  from 
the  soil  and  the  air.  Mankind's  supply  of  bread  comes 
chiefly  from  tiny  pantries  stored  in  the  seeds  by  grain 
plants.  By  carefully  opening  the  halves  of  the  seed  of 
bean  or  cowpea,  you  will  find  the  germ,  which  appears  as 
a  very  small,  flattened,  white  bud  near  the  point  where 
the  two  fleshy  halves  are  joined  together. 

"Coming  up."  —  When  germination  occurs,  this  bud  of 
the  bean,  squash,  and  many  other  plants  is  pulled  to  the 
surface  of  the  ground  in  an  interesting  way.  That  part  of 
the  stem  just  below  the  seed-leaves  rapidly  increases  in 
length,  humping  itself  into  the  shape  of  a  wire  staple. 
Hence  the  first  thing  seen  above  ground  is  a  part  of  the 
stem  shaped  like  the  center  of  a  wire  staple.  One  end  of 
this  staple  is  formed  by  the  roots,  while  the  other  end 


GERMINATION   OF   SEEDS 


25 


Fig.  23. 

The 

Plant 

breaking 

OUT  OF 
THE 

Seed 


bears  the  seed-leaves,  which  are  still  imprisoned  in  the  old 

seed-coat   underground.     However,   the   stem  is   steadily 

pulling  this  end  out  of  the  old  seed-coat, 

and  by  a  backing  process  it  soon  brings 

above  ground  both  the  fleshy  seed-leaves 

and  the  tiny  bud  nestling  between  them. 

The  seed-coat  may  have  been  left  in  the 

ground  or  may  have   been   lifted  out, 

still   imprisoning   the   bud.      Now   the 

stem  lifts  its  head,  straightens  its  back, 

and  if  the  seed-coat  adheres,  pushes  it 

off  by  the  growth  of  the  bud. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  garden  or 
English  pea  keeps  its  two  seed-leaves  underground 
(Fig.  25),  because  the  part  of  its  stem  that  grows  rapidly  is 
the  part  above  the  seed-leaves  and  between  them  and  the 
bud.  The  young  pea  stem  also  humps  its  back  and  pulls  its 
real  leaves  out  of  the  soil  backward. 

The  seed-leaves  of  all  these  plants,  whether  coming 
above  ground  like  those  of  beans,  cowpeas,  squash,  and 
cotton,  or  remaining  in  the  soil,  serve  to  feed  the  young 
plant  before  its  own  roots  and  leaves  can  support  it. 
At  first  these  seed-leaves  are  thick,  but  as  the  food  in 
these  pantries  is  given  to  the  growing  plant,  the  seed- 
leaves  shrivel  and  finally  disappear.  Since  these  seed- 
leaves  have  to  do  a  very  different  work  from  that  done 
by  the  later  or  true  leaves,  they  naturally  look  very 
different. 

Large  seeds.  —  The  largest  seeds  usually  make  a  quicker, 
stronger  growth  and  a  larger  yield  than   small   or   light 


26  AGRICULTURE 

seeds.     It  is  best,  therefore,  to  separate  the  largest  seeds 
from  the  others  by  using  sieves  or  screens. 

Testing  the  germination  of  seeds.  —  Seeds  of  some 
plants  lose  the  power  to  germinate  after  they  are  a  year  or 
two  old ;  others  are  good  when  a  number  of  years  old. 

If  seeds  become  moist  and  go  through  a  "  heat,"  they 
lose  their  power  to  germinate.  Children  can  often  help 
their  parents  by  testing  the  field  or 
garden  seeds  they  expect  to  plant  in 
order  to  discover  what  percentage  of 
them  can  grow.  All  that  is  needed 
is  a  plate  ;  a  piece  of  thick,  clean, 
dark  cloth,  to  be  dampened  and 
F».  34.— A  Home-made  spread  OH  the  plate;  a  similar  piece 

Seed  I^ester 

to  be  dampened  and  used  as  a  cover 
for  the  seeds;  and  a  second  plate  to  place  over  it  all 
(Fig.  24).  Keep  this  home-made  seed  tester  in  a  warm 
room.  Examine  the  seed  on  the  fifth  and  eighth  days,  and 
as  much  oftener  as  you  wish. 

Exercise.  —  With  a  sharp  knife,  cut  through  grains  of  com  that  are 
soft  and  dented  and  through  others  that  are  flinty  and  not  dented. 
Make  a  drawing  to  show  the  difference  between  the  two  grains  in  the 
thickness  of  the  several  layers.  Select  six  grains  of  corn  having  the 
largast  possible  germs,  as  shown  by  the  size  of  the  depressed  area. 
Select  six  others  with  the  smallest  possible  germs.  Which  grains 
would  you  expect  to  make  the  largest,  strongest  young  plants  and  to 
be  best  able  to  push  up  if  covered  rather  deep  ? 

Shell  ten  good  ears  and  measure  the  shelled  corn,  so  as  to  calculate 
how  many  ears  make  a  bushel  (56  lb.  of  shelled  corn).  Write  in  your 
notebook  the  number  of  ears  per  bushel. 

A  good  exercise  is  to  go  to  a  number  of  cornfields  and  estimate  how 
many  busheb  per  acre  each  field  will  yield.    If  you  can  get  permission, 


GERMINATION   OF   SEEDS 


2; 


gather  the  corn  from  a  carefully  measured  area  (at  least  ^V  acre). 
First  weigh  the  ear  corn  and  then  compare  your  estimates  with  the 
actual  yields.  Be  sure  to  record  your  estimates  in  your  notebook,  where 
you  can  later  write  the  actual  yields. 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  Have  the  pupils  make  a  home-made 
seed  tester  by  following  the  directions  in  the  text  or  by  dampening 
many  folds  of  old  newspapers  kept  in  a  small  tight  box.  In  it  let  them 
place  fifty  or  one  hundred  seeds  of  as  many  kinds  as  they  can  find  near 
home.  Let  them  pick  out  the  largest  and  smallest  seeds  of  wheat, 
radish,  or  peas.  Place  both  sizes  in  different  parts  of  the  germinating 
box  or  plate  and  notice  which  produces  the  largest  shoots.  The  in- 
terest of  parents  may  be  enlisted  by  having  the  pupils  make  tests  to 
determine  the  percentage  of  germination  of  the  seeds  of  vegetables  or 
field  crops  that  their  parents  expect  to  plant. 


Fig.  25.  —  Germination  of  the  Pea 


SECTION   V.     WATER   FOR   THE   PLANT 

In  order  that  plants  may  grow,  they  must  obtain  water 
from  the  soil,  and  food  from  both  the  soil  and  the  air. 
They  must  form  all  parts  of  the  plant  out  of  these 
materials.  We  shall  first  consider  how  plants  get  their 
supply  of  water. 

The  need  for  water,  —  There  is  a  constant  stream  of 
w^cr  flowing  upward  towards  the  leaves  from  the  roots, 
which  gather  it  from  the  soil.  The  leaves  use  some  of  this 
water  and  then  throw  off  into  the  air  that  which  they  do 
not  need.  We  cannot  see  this  current,  but  careful  measure- 
ments show  that  plants  send  upward  through  their  stems 
to  the  leaves  an  immense  amount  of  water.  A  clover  plant 
has  been  found  to  give  off  in  one  day  twice  its  weight  of 
water.  A  crop  of  hay  on  one  acre  producing  two  tons  has 
been  found  to  use  during  its  growing  season  more  than  six 
hundred  tons  or  wagon  loads  of  water.  Speaking  generally, 
a  crop  requires  about  four  hundred  times  as  much  water  in 
a  season  as  the  weight  of  the  dry  substance  in  the  crop. 

Experiment.  —  What  becomes  of  the  water?  A  part  of  the  water 
that  passes  into  plants  is  kept  there  to  make  the  plant  plump  and  stiff 
and  to  help  in  carrying  food.  Most  of  the  water  merely  passes  through 
the  plant.  The  roots  take  it  in  and  send  it  up  to  the  leaves.  The  leaves 
throw  it  off  as  water  vapor.  You  can  watch  leaves  getting  rid  of  their 
surplus  water  by  turning  a  glass  upside  down  over  a  plant  that  is  growing 
rapidly  in  the  sunshine  (Fig.  26).   Every  minute  water  is  coming  from 

38 


WATER   FOR   THE  PLANT 


29 


the  leaves  as  vapor.  As  soon  as  the  air  under  the  glass  receives  more 
moisture  than  it  can  hold  in  the  form  of  a  vapor  or  gas,  the  extra  mois- 
ture gathers  in  drops  on  the  inside  of  the  glass. 

How  plants  lift  water.  —  What  force  enables  plants  to 
collect  water  from  the  ground  and  lift  it  into  the  roots  and 
stems .''  To  understand  this,  we  need  to  study  the  tiny  parts 
or  cells  of  which  the  plant  consists.  We  may  think  of  a 
plant  cell  as  a  tiny  room,  too  small 
even  to  be  seen  without  a  powerful 
microscope.  But  this  little  room  or 
cell  has  no  doors  nor  windows  nor 
other  openings  into  it.  It  is  com- 
pletely lined  on  the  inside  with  a 
layer  of  living  jelly-like  material. 
This  layer  lets  water  and  the  material 
dissolved  in  water  soak  through  it 
and  thus  pass  to  the  inside  of  the 
cell.  An  important  fact  to  remem- 
ber is  that  the  water  passes  in,  but 
will  not  pass  out  into  the  soil  again 
while  the  plant  is  healthy.  This  is 
partly  because  the  water  in  the  soil  is  more  dilute  than 
the  sap  which  fills  the  plant  cell ;  and  also  because  the 
dilute  soil  water  can  flow  in  through  the  cell  hning  more 
rapidly  than  the  denser  sap  inside  can  flow  out  into 
the  soil.  This  flow  of  water  towards  the  sap  or  denser 
liquid  helps  to  force  water  upward  from  the  roots.  The 
leaves  assist  in  the  upward  flow,  for  water  must  rise 
to  take  the  place  of  that  which  the  leaves  give  off  into 
the  air. 


Fig.  26.  —  Showing  that 
Water  is  thrown  off 
from  the  Leaves  of 
Growing  Plants 


30 


AGRICULTURE 


The  water  current.  —  The  current  of  liquid  rising  from 
the  roots  and  soil  soaks  through  tiny  canals  in  the  stem  up 
to  the  leaves.  In  trees,  the  tubes  that  carry  water  from 
the  soil  upward  are  located  in  the  sap-wood,  while  those 
that  bring  the  sap  downward  from  the  leaves  to  build  up 

all  parts  of  the  plant  lie  between 

the  outer  bark  and  the  sap-wood. 

If   you   cut   oflf  a   branch   of  a 

grapevine  just   as  the  buds  are 

swelling,  you  will  notice  next  day 

that  the  wound  has  "  bled,"  that 

is,  water  has  been  forced  up  to 

and  out  of  the  cut  portion.    When 

we    speak   of  the    sap   rising  in 

the  spring,  we  mean  that  the  roots  have 

begun  to  force  water  upward.     As  soon 

as   the    leaves    appfear,    the   real    sap 

will  flow  downward  in  the  inner  bark 

at  the  same  time  that  the  water  from 

the  soil  continues  to  rise  through   the 

tiny  channels  nearer  the  center  of  the 

stem. 

Root-hairs.  —  The  large  roots  which 
you  easily  see  when  you  pull  up  a  plant  are  not  the  ones 
that  absorb  water  from  the  soil.  If  you  will  carefully 
dig  up  the  smallest  roots  of  a  very  young  plant,  you  will 
notice  that  the  slenderest  roots  are  covered  near  their  ends 
with  a  white  coating  like  velvet.  These  white  threads  are 
root-hairs  (Fig.  27).  It  is  the  business  of  each  of  these 
short,  velvety  threads,  or  root-hairs,  to  absorb  moisture  and 


Fig.   37.  —  RooT-HAiKs 
OF  Squash 


WATER   FOR  THE   PLANT  3 1 

dissolve  plant-food  from  the  soil.  You  can  see  the  root- 
hairs  plainly  by  causing  grains  of  corn  or  any  other  seeds 
to  sprout  between  moist  blotting  paper  and  by  examining 
after  a  few  days  the  roots  that  have  grown  out. 

Root-hairs  are  tiny  workers  that  have  to  furnish  all 
the  water  a  large  plant  needs.  There  are  thousands 
of  them  on  every  large  growing  plant.  Root-hairs  can 
be  found  only  near  the  tips  of  young  roots.  They  are 
so  slender  that  they  can  push  in  between  the  particles 
of  sand  or  clay  and  absorb  moisture  from  all  the  soil 
grains  that  touch  them.  It  is  important  therefore  to 
retain  the  small  or  young  roots  on  trees  or  other  plants 
that  are  to  be  transplanted. 

Leaves  do  not  supply  water.  —  The  dew  and  rain  keep 
the  leaves  from  wasting  moisture,  but  do  not  enter  the 
leaves  themselves.  Leaves  do  not  supply  the  plant  with 
water. 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  Crosby's  Exercise  2  (see  note  to  Sec- 
tion I)  illustrates  how  water  enters  the  roots  of  plants.  You  may  well 
use  Crosby's  Exercise  5  to  show  the  rising  of  water  in  plants.  You  can 
substitute  the  joint  of  a  reed  for  his  glass  tube.  Have  the  pupils  place 
seed  in  moist  newspapers,  cloth,  or  soil  to  germinate.  As  soon  as  the 
root-hairs  develop  require  every  one  to  hand  you  a  drawing  showing 
these. 


SECTION  VI.     HOW  PLANTS  GET  FOOD  FROM 
SOIL  AND  AIR 

No  solid  matter  can  enter  a  plant.  The  living  matter 
that  lines  the  inside  of  each  cell-wall  will  not  let  even  the 
finest  solid  particles  pass,  though  they  be  as  fine  as  those 
of  flour  or  of  phosphate.  No  part  of  the  soil  can  act  as 
food  until  it  has  been  dissolved. 

Sugar  and  salt,  as  you  know,  dissolve  in  water,  and  just 
so  do  certain  substances  in  the  soil  dissolve  in  the  water. 
In  ordinary  soil  this  solution  is  very  weak,  so  weak  that 
it  will  usually  take  several  thousand  pounds  of  water  to 
carry  to  the  plant  one  pound  of  lime,  phosphate,  or  any 
other  single  plant-food.  In  later  chapters,  you  will  learn 
what  food  certain  plants  require  and  also  how  the  farmer 
adds  this  to  any  soil  that  is  too  poor  to  supply  to  the  plant 
the  needed  nourishment. 

Plants  are  made  largely  from  the  air.  —  Fortunately  for 
the  farmer  and  for  the  food  supply  of  the  world,  the  plant 
obtains  more  material  for  its  solid  substance  from  the 
air  than  from  the  soil.  In  every  hundred  pounds  of  dry 
plants  there  are  usually  less  than  three  pounds  that  come 
from  the  soil.  The  grains  of  wheat,  corn,  and  rice  consist 
chiefly  of  starch.  Other  plants  are  rich  in  sugar,  while 
the  seeds  of  still  others  contain  much  oil  or  fat  Starch, 
sugar,  oil,  and  many  other  substances  in  plants  are  made 

32 


HOW  PLANTS   GET   FOOD   FROM   SOIL   AND   AIR       33 

by  the  leaves  largely  from  one  form  of  carbon,  which  occurs 
as  a  gas  in  the  air.  However,  there  will  be  no  abundant 
growth  of  leaves  to  make  this  starch,  sugar,  or  oil  unless 
the  roots  provide  the  small  but  necessary  amounts  of  cer- 
tain other  substances. 

Food  taken  from  the  soiL  —  There  are  at  least  ten 
elements  that  plants  draw  from  the  soil  alone.  All  but 
four  of  these  are  nearly  always  present  in  the  soil  in 
quantities  sufficient  to  supply  our  crops  for  hundreds  of 
years.  The  only  plant-foods  that  are  taken  from  the  soil 
and  that  we  need  talk  about  in  this  book  are  those  four 
that  are  sometimes  so  scarce  that  the  farmer  may  have 
to  add  them  to  the  soil  in  order  to  get  a  good  crop. 

Precious  forms  of  plant-food.  —  The  four  plant-foods  or 
elements  that  are  often  not  sufficiently  abundant  in  the 
soil  are  ni'trd  gen,  phos'pho  rus,  p5  tas'si  um,  and  cal'- 
91  iim.  We  call  these  the  precious  elements,  for  they  are 
more  important  to  the  plant  and  to  the  farmer  than  the 
precious  metals,  silver  and  gold.  Besides,  the  farmer  often 
has  to  buy  them,  paying  silver  and  gold  for  them. 

One  cause  of  poor  crops.  —  These  four  elements  exist  in 
the  soil  in  combinations ;  we  speak  of  the  potassium  com- 
binations as  potash,  and  of  the  calcium  combinations  as 
lime.  In  some  soils  only  one  of  these  four  may  be  in- 
sufficient ;  in  another  soil  there  may  be  a  lack  of  two  of 
them ;  in  a  third  three  of  them  may  be  wanting ;  and  in 
yet  another  soil  all  four  of  them  may  need  to  be  supplied. 
If  a  single  one  is  lacking  or  insufficient  in  quantity,  there 
will  be  a  failure  of  the  crop,  no  matter  how  abundant  the 
other  three  may  be.     So  it  happens  that  a  farmer  may  buy 


34  AGRICULTURE 

phosphates  and  potash  and  furnish  these  freely  to  his  crops, 
and  yet  have  them  fail  because  one  of  the  other  elements 
may  be  lacking. 

These  precious  elements  and  all  other  materials  that  go 
from  the  soil  into  the  plant  must  first  be  dissolved  in  water. 
This  solution  of  plant-food  is  then  drawn  into  the  cells  of 
the  plant  and  carried  up  through  the  stem,  the  greater 
part  directly  to  the  leaves,  where  it  is  used  and  mixed  with 

the  substances  the  leaves  have 
made  from  the  carbon  of  the 
air.  The  result  of  this  diges- 
tion and  mixing  is  a  liquid 
called  sap.  This  sap  is  slowly 
distributed  to  all  parts  of  the 
Fig.  a8.— Showing  how  a  Cut  Edge  plant,  to  be  used  in  enlarg- 
OF  A  Leaf  LOOKS  WHEN  HIGHLY  MAG-  '       ^^j  making  ncw  Icavcs, 

NIFIED 

A  little  of  the  under  surface  is  shown  S^CmS,      rOOtS,      flowerS,      and 
and  in  it  the  "gateways"  or  entrances  seeds. 

Roots  help  to  dissolve  soil. 
—  Roots  give  off  small  amounts  of  a  weak  acid  which  dis- 
solves more  of  the  plant-food  in  the  soil  that  the  roots 
touch  than  pure  water  can.  This  food  dissolved  by  acid  is 
added  to  that  already  dissolved  from  the  soil  by  water,  and 
the  mixture  is  drawn  into  the  plant  and  started  towards 
the  leaves.  The  leaves  prepare  this  solution  still  further 
and  make  it  into  sap  before  it  can  nourish  and  build  up 
the  plant. 

Plants  need  air.  —  You  have  doubtless  learned  in  study- 
ing physiology  how  persons  and  animals  breathe.  They 
take  the  air  into  the  lungs  and  the  oxygen  gas  which  it 


HOW   PLANTS   GET   FOOD   FROM   SOIL   AND   AIR       35 

contains  is  there  taken  from  it  for  use  in  the  body.  If 
persons  and  land  animals  remain  long  under  water  they 
drown,  because  the  supply  of  air  is  cut  off.  Likewise 
ordinary  plants  die  when  their  leaves  or  roots  are  kept  long 
under  water,  because  they  are  thus  deprived  of  sufficient 
air. 

How  air  enters  the  leaf.  —  Why  do  you  suppose  that 
the  leaf  is  made  so  thin  and  broad  instead  of  being  rolled 
up  into  a  compact,  round  little  bundle  .■*  Leaves,  even  the 
thinnest,  are  made  up  of  several  very  thin  layers,  each  one 
of  which  consists  of  a  great  number  of  cells.  In  the  outer 
layers  of  the  leaf  these  cells  lie  close  together,  making 
a  tight  thin  sheet  which  covers  layers  of  more  loosely 
arranged  inner  cells  (Fig.  28).  In  these  thin  outer  layers 
are  great  numbers  of  tiny  openings.  These  are  gateways 
for  the  entrance  of  air  into  the  inside  of  the  leaf.  They 
are  also  the  gates  through  which  leaves  get  rid  of  the 
surplus  water  sent  up  by  the  roots.  They  are  too  small  to 
be  seen  with  the  naked  eye,  and  exist  in  large  numbers 
on  every  square  inch  of  the  under  side  of  every  leaf.  The 
plant  can  open  and  close  these  by  means  of  special  cells 
called  guard-cells.  When  the  weather  is  very  dry,  these 
gateways  partly  close,  to  keep  moisture  from  passing  too 
rapidly  out  of  the  leaves. 

Use  of  air  by  plants.  —  Plants  and  animals  are  alike  in 
"breathing"  fresh  air,  containing  oxygen.  Man  and  ani- 
mals take  oxygen  from  the  air  to  use  in  their  lungs  and 
give  back  a  gas  called  carbon  dioxid,  which  consists  of 
carbon  and  oxygen  united  together.  Plants,  too,  use  oxy- 
gen,   although   they   have  no  lungs.     In  making  food  for 


36  AGRICULTURE 

themselves  green  plants  use  also  the  carbon  dioxid  of  the 
air,  such  as  the  animals  give  ofif.  In  fact,  through  the 
pores  or  little  gateways  the  air  enters  and  comes  in  con- 
tact with  the  inside  cells  of  the  leaves.  These  cells  take 
from  the  air  the  carbon  it  is  holding  in  the  form  of  a  gas. 
This  gas  is  called  carbon  dioxid.  Out  of  this  carbon 
dio.xid  gas  and  water  the  leaf  cells  form  starch,  sugar,  and 
other  substances  of  which  plants  are  made. 

Leaves  need  light.  —  An  interesting  fact  connected  with 
this  latter  use  of  air  by  plants  is  that  the  leaf  cannot  use 
this  carbon  dioxid  unless  the  leaf  contains  green  coloring 
matter.  This  green  coloring  matter  usually  forms  only 
when  there  is  light.  It  disappears  from  plants  when  the 
light  is  cut  off. 

Experiment.  —  Examine  grass  covered  by  a  board  or  straw,  or  a 
potato  shoot  grown  in  a  dark  room,  and  notice  that  the  absence  of  light 
has  prevented  the  formation  of  the  green  color  and  left  the  leaves  and 
stems  white.  Such  plants  cannot  grow  to  maturity  because  they  cannot 
feed  on  the  carbon  in  the  air.  So  if  we  accidentally  throw  dirt  over  all 
the  leaves  of  a  little  corn  or  cotton  plant  when  cultivating  the  crop,  we 
cut  off  the  light  and  stop  the  growth  of  the  plant.  This  is  one  of  the 
ways  by  which  the  farmer  kills  weeds,  namely,  by  covering  them  with 
earth. 

Exercise. — What  is  the  color  of  young  corn  plants  on  wet  spots 
after  a  long  period  of  wet  weather  ?  This  unhealthy  color  was  caused 
by  lack  of  what  ? 

In  the  middle  of  a  hot,  dry  day  what  shape  does  a  large  green  leaf 
of  corn  take  ?  Do  the  edges  roll  upward  or  downward  ?  Do  you 
think  this  position  increases  or  decreases  the  loss  of  water  from  the 
leaves  ?  There  are  special  cells  in  the  corn  whose  work  it  is  to  roll 
the  leaf  when  water  is  scarce.  They  are  different  from  the  guard-cells, 
but  likewise  help  the  plant  to  economize  water.  Obser\*e  whether 
leaves  are  most  abundant  on  the  tips  of  the  branches  of  trees  or  nearer 


I 


HOW   PLANTS   GET   FOOD   FROM   SOIL  AND   AIR       37 

the  center  of  the  tree  top.     In  which  position  would  they  receive  most 
light? 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  Optional  Exercise.  —  Tincture  of  iodine 
maizes  starch  change  to  a  purple  color.  Add  a  few  drops  of  this  to 
a  teaspoonful  of  water ;  with  this  moisten  a  thin  slice  of  Irish  potato, 
sweet  potato,  bread,  cut  corn  grain,  plant  stems,  or  lettuce  leaves. 
Before  staining  green  leaves  with  iodine  you  should  dissolve  out  the 
leaf  green  with  alcohol  very  carefully  heated  in  a  vessel  of  hot  water. 
A  substance  not  colored  purple  by  iodine  solution  lacks  starch.  Test 
a  slice  of  meat ;  a  cut  stem  of  whitened  grass  from  under  a  board  ;  the 
white  inner  leaves  of  cabbage  ;  or  the  white  or  white-variegated  leaves 
of  coleus,  etc. ;  and  any  leaf  that  has  been  kept  in  darkness  for  several 
days. 


Fig.  29.  —  A  Fern  that  suffers 

FROM     TOO     LITTLE     SuNLIGHT, 

SHOWING  POOR   Foliage  and 
Growth 


SECTION   VII.     HOW   PLANTS   ARE 
PROPAGATED 

Most  of  our  field  crops  are  increased  or  propagated  by 
means  of  seed.  One  plant,  because  of  the  seeds  it  forms, 
may  become  the  parent  of  hundreds  or  of  thousands  of 
others  of  the  same  kind.  This  method  of  increasing 
plants  is  well  understood. 

There  are  some  plants  the  seed  of  which  must  be  sown 
every  year,  for  example,  oats  and  corn.  These  are  called 
annuals,  because  they  live  during  only  one  growing 
season.  Plants  that  live  two  years  are  known  as  biennials. 
A  third  class  consists  of  X\\q  fcrcnniais,  that  is,  plants  tliat 
live  for  more  than  two  years.  Bermuda  grass,  alfalfa, 
and  all  trees  are  examples  of  perennial  plants. 

Most  cultivated  plants,  including  the  perennials,  develop 
from  seeds.  With  most  fruit  trees  and  with  many  other 
plants,  it  is  best  to  provide  for  the  increase  by  budding, 
grafting,  and  the  like.  These  and  other  methods  of  multi- 
plying plants  without  the  use  of  seeds  are  called  propaga- 
tion by  division. 

Some  plants  propagated  by  buds.  —  Did  you  ever  see 
seeds  on  sugar  cane  or  sweet  potatoes.'  In  tropical 
countries  these  plants  make  seed,  but  not  usually  in  our 
country.     Since  these  plants  as  a  rule  form  no  seed  here, 

38 


HOW  PLANTS  ARE  PROPAGATED        39 

we  must  find  some  other  part  of  them  that  will  grow.  The 
part  of  the  plant  that  can  most  nearly  take  the  place  of 
a  seed  is  a  bud.  The  sugar  planter  places  long  sugar 
canes  in  the  ground,  expecting  the  buds  on  them  to  grow. 
In  place  of  the  sugar  cane  he  may  plant  a  piece  of  an 
Irish  potato  containing  one  or  more  eyes,  or  clusters  of 
buds.  But  if  he  so  cuts  the  potato  that  one  piece  has  no 
bud  in  it,  no  plant  will  grow  from  it  and  he  will  have  a 
vacant  hill. 

Most  fruits  do  not  **  come  true  "  from  seed.  —  One  reason 
why  the  grower  uses  buds  of  sugar  cane,  sweet  potatoes, 
and  seedless  oranges  is  because  he  cannot  get  seeds  to 
plant.  There  are  advantages  in  using  buds  instead  of 
seed  in  some  cases  even  when  the  seed  can  easily  be 
obtained. 

By  planting  the  seed  of  the  peach  we  do  not  get  peaches 
just  Hke  the  one  from  which  the  seed  came.  The  same 
thing  is  true  with  apples,  pears,  strawberries,  and  most 
of  our  fruits.  Of  such  fruits  we  say,  they  do  not  "  come 
true  "  from  the  seed. 

Budding.  —  The  method  of  growing  fruit  like  that  on 
the  parent  tree  is  by  budding  or  grafting.  If  we  grow 
peach,  apple,  or  other  trees  from  buds,  we  may  be  quite 
sure  that  the  fruit  on  the  young  tree  will  be  like  its  parent 
and  much  like  all  other  perfect  fruit  in  the  same  variety. 
If  you  take  a  hundred  buds  from  one  peach  tree  and  cause 
these  to  grow  into  a  hundred  young  trees,  they  will  all  bear 
fruit  practically  alike.  In  this  case,  the  trees  would  be  more 
closely  akin  to  each  other  than  would  be  a  hundred  trees 
grown  from  the  seeds  from  one  tree.     This  is  so  because  a 


40 


AGRICULTURE 


bud  is  a  part  of  only  one  plant.  A  seed  is  often  made  by 
tivo  plants,  and  the  different  seedlings  may  resemble  either 
parent,  while  each  budded  tree  has  only  one  parent. 

Cuttings.  —  Plants  are  increased  either  by  planting  seeds 
or  buds.     If,  however,  you  should  plant  in  the  ground  a 
detached  bud   from  a  grape-vine  or  from 
}k  any  fruit  tree,  it  would  not  grow.     It  would 

1  die  (i)  because  a  bud  cannot  at  first  get 

I  any   food    from  the  soil,  and   (2)  because 

such  a  bud  has  not  much  food  stored  up 
to  nourish  it  until  it  forms  roots  of  its  own. 
But  you  may  so  plant  it  that  it  will  have 
much  ready-made  food  convenient.  Be- 
fore the  leaves  start,  cut  off  pieces  of 
fig  trees  or  grape-vine  of  last  year's  growth 
six  or  eight  inches  long  and  containing  at 
least  three  buds  (Fig.  30).  These  pieces 
of  stem  or  branch  are  called  cuttings. 
Plant  these  in  sandy  soil,  the  upper  bud 
just  above  the  surface  and  the  lower  bud 
deep  in  the  soil.  If  you  have  done  this  as 
a  skilful  gardener  does,  you  will  see  after 
Fro.  30.— A  Cut-  ^  £g^  weeks  that  the  upper  bud  has  begun 

TING 

to  develop  into  a  branch,  which  in  time  will 
be  a  real  bearing  grape-vine.  If  you  dig  up  one  of  these 
little  grape  sticks  that  has  thus  begun  to  grow,  you  will 
find  that  tiny  roots  have  grown.  It  was  the  food  material 
stored  in  the  stem  or  cutting  that  enabled  the  buds  to 
grow. 

The  use  of  various  kinds  of  cuttings  is  the  usual  way  of 


HOW   PLANTS   ARE   PROPAGATED  41 

increasing  grapes,  figs,  poplars,  and  many  other  kinds  of 
plants.  The  cuttings  should  have  two  or  more  joints. 
Grape  cuttings  usually  have  two  or  three  buds.  The  usual 
time  to  put  them  in  the  ground  is  late  winter.  Under  a 
cover  of  glass,  and  sometimes  without  this  covering,  many 
kinds  of  flowers  can  be  increased  by  means  of  cuttings, 
for  example,  roses  and  geraniums.  The  chief  use  of  the 
cover  is  to  keep  moisture  in  the  leaf,  the  soil,  and  the  air. 

Uses  of  budding  and  grafting.  —  So  if  we  wish  to  make 
a  grape,  or  peach,  or  apple  bud  grow,  we  must  plant  it, 
not  by  itself  in  the  soil,  but  joined  to  enough  of  the  wood 
and  bark  to  furnish  it  with  a  supply  of  ready-made  food. 
This  is  what  the  fruit-grower  does  when  he  plants  cut- 
tings of  the  grape  or  when  he  buds  his  peach  or  grafts 
his  apple  trees. 

You  can  learn  how  to  bud  and  graft  fruit  trees  and  roses 
if  you  will  study  the  pictures  and  directions  and  will  prac- 
tice a  little  every  day  for  a  week  or  two.  By  budding  or 
grafting  the  poorer  varieties  in  your  parents'  orchards  with 
the  buds  or  twigs  from  the  best  variety  in  some  neighbor's 
orchard,  you  will  be  of  real  help  at  home  and  will  probably 
be  able  to  enjoy  some  of  the  improved  fruit  yourself. 

Directions  for  grafting.  —  Grafting  consists  in  making  a 
short  piece  of  twig  of  one  plant  unite  with  the  branch 
or  root  of  another.  The  plant  that  furnishes  the  twig 
(called  a  ^t'dn)  must  be  very  closely  akin  to  the  plant 
upon  whose  branch  or  root  the  cion  is  to  grow.  The 
plant  or  piece  from  which  the  roots  spring  is  called  the 
stock.  Generally,  stocks  are  common  young  plants  that 
have  been  grown  from  seed.     Usually,  the  cion  is  a  short 


42 


AGRICULTURE 


piece  of  twig  about  one  year  old  and  bearing  two  or  three 
buds.  The  stock  may  be  a  young  piece  of  root,  a  young  or 
an  old  branch.  Grafting  is  generally  done 
in  the  late  winter  or  very  early  in  spring, 
while  the  plant  is  resting. 

In  Figure  31  is  shown  one  way  of  cut- 
ting the  cions  and  the  stocks  in  grafting 
apple  cions  on  small  branches  or  small 
pieces  of  apple  root.  Your  knife  must 
be  sharp  and  thin,  so  as  not  to  split  the 
cion  or  stock  in  making  the  slit.  After 
cutting  the  two  pieces  as  shown  in  the 
figure,  place  their 
ends  together,  mak- 
ing the  two  slender 
tongues  lock.  The 
important  point  is  to 
Showing    how    small  ^^^kc    sure    that   on 

stocks  are  grafted. 

one  side  the  bark  of 
the  two  pieces  comes  together  evenly. 
The  union  is  caused  by  the  layer 
just  under  the  bark  of  the  cion 
growing  against  the  similar  layer 
in  the  stock.  These  growing  layers 
must  touch  on  at  least  one  side  of  the  fio. 3a. -Showing  how 
graft.  In  setting  in  the  ground  cions 
that  have  been  grafted  on  roots,  the 
joint  or  union  is  placed  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
Grafting  on  large  branches.  —  When  a  small  cion  is 
grafted  on  a  branch  that  is  one  or  two  inches  through,  the 


Fig.  31.  —  Whip- 

CRAmNG 


Large  Branches  akk 

CRAFTED 


HOW  PLANTS   ARE   PROPAGATED 


43 


limb  is  cut  off  square,  then 
slightly  split  (Fig.  32).  In 
this  slit  is  placed  the  sharpened 
cion,  which  is  now  cut  tapering 
from  both  sides.  The  bark  of 
the  young  cion  must  join 
evenly  with  the  bark  on  one 
side  of  the  large  spUt  limb. 
To  make  sure  that  the  two 
barks  are  pressed  together 
tightly,  the  wedge  part  of  the 
cion  is  left  a  little  thicker  on 
the  outside,  that  is,  on  the  edge 

that  is   going  to  join  the  bark    Fig.  33.  — An   Apple   Tree,   the 

of   the   large   branch.     In   all      ^op  of  which  has  been  ke- 

newed  by  Grafting 
kinds  of   grafts,   drying   must 

be  prevented  by  covering  the  cut  portions  with  grafting 

wax.     Generally,  a  graft 

on  a  small  stock  is  tied 

with  a  cloth   string   and 

then  waxed.      Fig.    33 

shows   a  new   top   made 

by  grafting. 

Budding.  —  Budding 

consists    in    inserting    a 

||     single  bud,    with   a   tiny 

strip    of    attached    bark, 

just  under  the  bark  of  a 

a,  showing  the  sUt;   h,  b,  the  bud;    c,  the  •  r       .        q^v      v     j 

slit  opened;  d,  the  bud   in  position,  and    °  ° 

e,  after  tying.  should  be   CUt  OUt  with   a 


Fig.  34.  —  Budding 


44 


AGRICULTURE 


slender  piece  of  bark  and  wood  about  three  fourths' of  an 
inch  long,  leaving  a  part  of  the  leaf  stem  for  use  as  a 
handle.  This  is  the  way  in  which  peach  and  most  other 
fruit   trees   are   increased.     Budding   is   usually  done   in 

summer  while  the  plants 
are  in  active  growth. 
To  serve  as  stock  for 
budding,  an  apple  tree 
may  be  about  two  years 
old,  but  a  peach  seed- 
ling can  be  budded  in 
its  first  year  of  growth. 
Two  slits  in  the  shape 
of  a  T  are  cut  in  the 
stock,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
34.  The  bark  below 
the  cross  slit  is  gently 
lifted  and  the  bud  placed 
under  these  two  flaps  of 
bark,  and  tied  in  place. 
In  a  few  weeks,  when 
the  bud  has  united  with 
the  stock,  the  strings 
should  be  cut.  Next  spring  the  top  of  the  stock  above 
the  inserted  bud  should  be  cut  off,  so  as  to  let  the  inserted 
bud  become  the  leading  branch  of  the  tree.  Fig.  35 
shows  the  budding  of  trees  in  the  nursery  row. 

Exercise.  —  Practice  grafting  short  pieces  of  twigs  of  plum,  persim- 
mon, apple,  or  other  trees  and  shrubs.  Then  graft  a  twig  of  any  of 
these,  that  have  dropped  their  leaves,  on  a  slender  shoot  of  the  same 


Fig.  35.  —  Tying  the  Buds  after  Budding 


HOW  PLANTS  ARE  PROPAGATED        45 

kind.  See  who  can  cause  the  greatest  percentage  of  the  grafts  to  live. 
In  warm  weather  practice  budding  on  any  of  these  plants.  Grafting 
wax  may  be  made  by  melting  together  5  parts  of  resin,  2^  of  beeswax, 
and  I  of  tallow.  When  heated,  pour  the  mixture  into  cold  water,  grease 
your  hands,  and  "  pull "  it  as  you  would  "  pull "  molasses  candy. 

Teacher's  Note. —  Crosby's  Exercises  Nos.  17, 18, 19, 20,  21, 22,  and 
23  treat  the  subjects  of  this  section  in  much  more  detail  than  is  possible 
here.  After  the  pupils  have  practiced  on  detached  twigs,  they  may 
graft  on  standing  plants,  provided  it  is  in  winter.  If  no  fruit  trees  or 
roses  can  be  risked,  they  may  at  first  practice  in  grafting  wild  cherry, 
wild  plums,  and  others.  After  growth  has  been  going  on  long  enough 
for  the  bark  to  slip  well,  budding  of  wild  cherries,  peaches,  etc.,  may 
be  attempted. 


Fig  36.  —  A  Cutting-box,  filled  with  sand, 

SUITABLE  FOR  A  SCHOOL -ROOM  WINDOW 


SECTION   VIII.     IMPROVEMENT  OF   PLANTS 

Our  valuable  cultivated  plants  have  been  changed  from 
poor  or  useless  wild  plants.  The  tomato,  for  example, 
bore  very  small  and  worthless  fruits,  and  the  cultivated 
rose  was  once  a  wild  rose  with  few  petals.  Greatly  as 
man  has  improved  plants  in  the  past,  recent  discoveries 
of  some  of  the  laws  of  improvement  should  make  future 
progress  still  more  rapid. 

Selection.  —  By  selection,  or  choosing  seeds  from  the 
most  desirable  individuals,  plants  may  be  slowly  changed. 
Selection  is  the  easiest,  surest,  and  usual  method  of  im- 
provement. In  plants  and  animals  the  general  rule  is 
that  the  offspring  resembles  the  parents  and  grandparents. 
But  among  the  five  hundred  or  more  stalks  grown  by 
planting  the  kernels  of  a  single  ear  of  com,  there  may 
usually  be  found  several  that  have  larger  ears  than  others 
from  the  same  ear.  All  crops  can  be  made  more  produc- 
tive by  using  seeds  from  a  small  seed-plot  that  is  planted 
every  year  with  the  seeds  from  the  best  plants  of  the  year 
before. 

In  selecting,  we  may,  for  example,  take  a  variety  of 
corn  that  has  usually  produced  only  one  ear  and  select  the 
few  plants  that  have  several  ears.  If  we  plant  these  seed 
by  themselves  and  in  that  crop  again  select  the  stalks  with 
most  ears,  and  so  on  every  season,  in  a  few  years  we  shall 

46 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   PLANTS  47 

have  a  new  variety  in  which  most  of  the  plants  will  bear 
several  ears.  This  is  improvement  by  selection.  Even 
plants  such  as  potatoes,  that  do  not  generally  produce 
seeds,  have  been  improved  by  selecting  the  best  hills  for 
planting  the  next  year. 

Select  for   one  quality  at  a  time.  —  In    improving  a 
variety,  change   can   be   made  most  rapidly  by  selecting 


FIg.  37.  —  SOME  Results  of  crossing  two  Varieties  of  Corn  of 
Different  Colors 

chiefly  for  one  thing  at  a  time.  That  is,  we  must  decide, 
say  with  corn,  whether  we  would  rather  increase  the  length 
of  ear,  or  the  length  of  kernels,  or  the  number  of  ears  per 
plant.  We  might  desire  all  three  of  these  qualities  in  our 
new  variety,  but  it  would  take  many  years  to  make  the 
desired  improvement,  if  we  chose  one  plant  for  number  of 
ears,  another  for  length  of  ear,  and  a  third  for  length  of 
kernel,  and  planted  these  seeds  together.  The  better  way 
is  to  find  some  variety  of  corn  already   existing   that  is 


48  AGRICULTURE 

really  good  enough  to  suit  us  in  all  qualities  except  one. 
Suppose  it  is  desired  to  increase  the  number  of  ears  on 
one  stalk.  Rapid  increase,  in  this  case,  would  come 
from  selecting  our  seed  ears  only  from  plants  bearing  sev- 
eral ears.  Among  these  several-eared  plants  preference 
would  be  given  to  those  that  have  the  other  desirable 
qualities  in  the  greatest  degree. 

Mixture  of  pollen  from  inferior  plants.  —  This  improve- 
ment by  selection  could  not  be  made  if  the  ear  selected 
were  planted  where  the  pollen  from  a  field  of  poor,  unim- 
proved corn  would  reach  the  silks  (Fig.  37).  If  some  of 
the  stalks  in  the  field  are  poor  or  barren,  as  shown  by 
having  no  ear-shoot,  the  tassels  of  such  plants  should  be 
pulled  off  before  the  pollen  has  begun  to  fall. 

The  improvement  by  selection  goes  on  more  rapidly  if 
the  offspring  of  each  of  the  best  plants  is  planted  sepa- 
rately. It  is  best  to  plant  each  set  of  seeds  in  a  separate 
row.  Selection  should  be  made  for  planting  the  seed- 
patch  the  next  year  by  choosing  the  ears  from  the  most 
productive  plants  on  the  best  row,  or  the  choice  cotton 
plants  in  the  best  row  of  cotton.  Unfortunately  the  plants 
of  field  corn,  of  cotton,  and  of  most  cultivated  plants  do 
not  show  resemblance  to  the  pollen-bearing  parent  the 
first  season.  The  crop  of  common  field  corn  does  not 
suffer  in  yield  the  first  season  from  a  cross  with  inferior 
pollen.  The  next  season,  however,  the  corn  from  such 
crosses  is  poor,  and  even  the  best  ears  thus  produced  will 
not  bear  uniform  offspring.  Popcorn  and  sweet  com 
may  show  the  change  the  first  year. 

Temporary  and  permanent  improvement  —  It  is  difficult 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   PLANTS  49 

to  distinguish  between  temporary  improvement,  and  that 
which  will  be  permanent  through  later  generations. 
Usually  an  increase  in  the  size  of  a  plant  due  simply  to 
one  year  of  special  fertilizing,  watering,  or  extra  space  is 
temporary.  The  large  size,  it  seems,  is  not  inherited  by 
the  offspring.  Improvement  due  to  years  of  selection  is, 
however,  inherited  (Fig.  39).  The  most  valuable  plant  for 
seed  purposes  is  not  always  the  plant  that  happens  to  be 
the  largest,  but  rather  the  one  that  will  produce  productive 
offspring  of  good  quality.  This  is  the  reason  why  in  a 
seed-patch  it  is  better  to  plant  all  the  descendants  of  one 
parent  plant  together  in  one  row,  so  that  the  farmer  may 
judge  the  parent  by  the  average  character  of  the  off- 
spring. 

The  farmer  who  would  improve  or  "  breed  up  "  his  com, 
cotton,  wheat,  oats,  or  other  crop,  should  have  a  special 
breeding  plot  or  seed-patch  and  should  carefully  observe 
each  plant  grown  there.  Sometimes  it  happens  that  there 
is  a  single  plant  that  is  decidedly  superior  to  all  the  others, 
and  seed  of  this  "sport,"  or  very  unusual  plant,  may  start 
a  new  and  more  valuable  variety. 

Home-grown  seed  often  the  best.  —  If  seed  of  corn  grown 
for  many  years  in  a  colder  country  is  brought  to  the 
Southern  states  and  seed  from  this  variety  planted  for 
several  years  in  the  South,  each  year  the  variety  gets 
later  and  later  and  the  stalks  larger  and  larger. 

If  early  vegetables  are  desired,  make  them  earlier  by 
getting  seed  grown  far  North  where  the  plant  has  learned 
to  be  in  a  hurry  to  get  ripe  in  a  short  season.  Field  corn 
from  north  of  the  Ohio  River  is  earlier  and  smaller,  and  in 


50  AGRICULTURE 

most  parts  of  the  South  yields  less,  than  our  native  corn. 
Likewise,  when  the  cotton-boll  weevil  invades  any  region, 
early  varieties  of  cotton  grown  on  the  northern  edge  of  the 
cotton  belt  ripen  a  considerable  part  of  their  crop  before 
the  weevils  destroy  the  squares  and  blossoms. 

A  change  of  seed  should  not  be  made  unless  there  is 
good  reason  for  it  or  unless  better  seed  can  thus  be  ob- 


FiG.  38.  —  Preparing  Cotton  Blooms  for  crossing 

On  left,  flower  bud;  In  center,  bud  after  removal  of  corolla,  showing  stamens; 

on  right,  pstil  from  around  which  stamens  have  been  removed. 

tained.  A  crop  suited  to  the  South  does  not  "  run  out  " 
or  grow  worthless  if  properly  managed.  A  plant  usually 
becomes  better  fitted  for  its  new  home  by  being  grown 
there  for  a  number  of  years.  Seed  grown  from  our 
own  field  crops  in  nearly  the  same  climate  should  be 
preferred. 

Improvement  by  crossing  plants.  —  Sometimes  the  plant- 
breeder  must  resort  to  crossing  in  order  to  unite  in  one 
plant  the  good  qualities  of  two  different  varieties.  Sup- 
pose, for  example,  he  wishes  to  improve  a  variety  of  com 
the  ears  of  which  are  too  smajl,  by  using  the  pollen  from 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  PLANTS  5I 

a  large-eared  variety.  Before  the  silk  is  seen  on  the 
mother  plant,  he  must  tie  a  paper  bag  over  the  ear  shoot. 
Soon  after  the  silks  show,  the  plant-breeder  carefully 
pulls  a  tassel  from  a  plant  of  the  large-eared  variety. 
The  pollen  should  be  just  ready  to  fly.  He  dusts  this 
over  the  silks  of  a  selected  plant  and  repeats  this  next 
day,  keeping  the  shoot  under  the  bag  until  the  silks  dry. 

He  may  wish  also  to  cause  a  big-boll  variety  of  cotton 
to  grow  a  longer  staple.  Before  the  cotton-bud  or  young 
bloom  of  the  big-boll  variety  is  ready  to  open,  or  about 
sunset  or  sunrise,  the  plant-breeder  opens  or  cuts  away 
the  upper  parts  of  the  white  petals,  and  with  a  knife, 
small  scissors,  or  fingers,  removes  every  anther  or  pollen 
case  (Fig.  38).  This  is  done  before  these  cases  have 
opened  and  spilled  their  pollen  on  the  pistil  of  the  same 
flower.  A  small  paper  bag  is  then  tied  over  the  injured 
flower  to  keep  insects  from  bringing  any  pollen  to  it.  Pollen 
from  a  selected  long-staple  plant  can  now  be  used,  after 
the  pistil  is  more  mature.  After  most  of  the  cotton 
blossoms  have  opened,  or  between  eight  and  ten  o'clock 
in  the  morning,  our  plant-breeder  comes  back,  removes 
the  paper  bag,  and  gently  rubs  over  the  top  of  the  pistil 
a  flower  from  a  plant  of  the  long-staple  variety,  on  which 
the  pollen  is  beginning  to  shed.  The  particles  of  pollen 
now  cHng  to  the  sticky  surface  on  the  stigma  and  grow 
there.  The  bag  is  replaced  and  removed  five  days  later, 
when,  if  all  is  well,  a  young  boll  is  found.  The  seeds  pro- 
duced in  that  boll  are  the  offspring  of  both  varieties. 

If,  however,  the  thirty  to  forty  seeds  from  that  boll  all 
grow  into  mature  plants,  the  next  year  these  sister  plants 


52  AGRICULTURE 

will  not  be  all  alike.  Some  will  resemble  the  big-boll 
mother  plant ;  some  will  be  like  the  long-staple  father 
plant;  some  will  be  unlike  either;  and  some  may  combine 
the  likeness  of  both  parents.  The  plant-breeder  must 
plant  the  seed,  giving  a  separate  row  to  the  seed  of  each 
plant ;  for  several  years  in  succession  he  must  select  for 
seed  the  plants  that  come  nearest  to  uniting  the  qualities 
that  he  wishes  —  large  bolls  and  long  lint.  It  will  usually 
be  best  for  the  farmer  to  rely  for  improvement  on  selec- 
tion alone,  rather  than  on  crossing. 

Cross-pollination  generally  better  than  self-pollination. — 
Generally,  pollen  is  most  effective  in  causing  seed  to  de- 
velop when  the  pollen  and  the  pistil  are  borne  on  different 
plants.  When  the  pollen  of  a  corn  plant  standing  alone 
falls  on  the  silks  of  the  same  plants,  grains  develop.  But 
the  plants  grown  from  such  corn  grains  are  less  vigorous 
and  productive  than  plants  from  seed  having  two  parents 
not  closely  related.  It  is  to  avoid  self-pollination  that  some 
seed-breeders  pull  the  immature  tassels  from  the  com 
plants  on  the  rows  from  which  they  intend  to  select  their 
best  seed  corn. 

Exercise.  —  Farmers'  boys  can  greatly  increase  next  year's  com 
crop  by  selecting  a  few  bushels  of  seed  from  the  best  plants. 

When  wheat  or  oats  are  ripe,  remember,  if  you  live  on  a  farm,  to 
watch  for  the  best  plants  and  to  save  seeds  from  a  few  of  them  for 
planting  by  themselves  next  year. 

Have  all  the  wild  plants  suitable  for  human  use  been  cultivated  and 
improved?  Perhaps  you  will  be  the  one  to  bring  another  wild  forage 
plant  or  flower  into  use. 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  Emphasize  the  great  opportunity  for 
good  in  selecting  seed  from  the  best  plants.  Weighing  the  product 
of  good  and  very  poor  plants  of  com,  cotton,  potatoes,  etc.,  will  help 


IMPROVEMENT   OF  PLANTS 


53 


to  point  this  lesson,  especially  if  a  calculation  is  made  of  the  difference 
in  yield  from  an  acre  of  each  of  the  two  types  of  plants. 

If  any  large  flowers,  like  cotton,  tobacco,  or  morning-glory,  are 
blooming,  let  the  pupils  carefully  remove  every  stamen  from  a  bud  in 
which  the  pollen  sacks  have  not  yet  burst.  Tie  cloth  or  paper  over 
the  injured  flower.  Grocers'  small  paper  bags  are  good.  After  a 
number  of  hours  collect  pollen  from  other  flowers  of  the  same  kind  and 
dust  this  pollen  over  the  tip  of  the  pistil  in  the  injured  flower.  Cover 
it  again.     In  a  week  or  two  see  whether  seeds  have  formed. 


Fig.  39.  —  Results  of  Selection  in  Wheat, 
after  four  years.  A,  head  from  sowing  small 
grains;  B,  head  from  sowing  large  grains. 


SECTION  IX.     HOW  THE   SOIL  WAS   FORMED. 
KINDS  OF  SOILS 

If  wc  hammer  a  small  piece  of  stone,  we  can  usually 
change  it  into  a  powder.  The  tiny  particles  that  make 
up  this  powder  arc  often  like  some  of  the  grains  of  the 
soil  that  may  be  found  near  the  stone.  What  is  now  soil, 
in  ages  past  was  solid  rock.  Far  mightier  forces  than  the 
heaviest  of  hammers  cracked  and  ground  these  ancient 
rocks  for  thousands  of  years,  until  they  crumbled  into  sand 
and  soil.  As  the  earth's  surface  cooled,  and  shrunk,  and 
wrinkled,  the  rocks  cracked.  Water  standing  in  these 
cracks  and  tiny  rough  places  froze.  In  freezing,  the  water 
expanded,  and  thus  broke  off  great  and  tiny  pieces  of  rock. 

Air  and  water,  just  as  they  eat  slowly  into  iron,  forming 
iron  rust,  so  changed  and  dissolved  some  of  the  cementing 
material  in  the  rock.  Then  the  remaining  parts  of  the 
large  rocks  crumbled. 

Water  grinds  rocks  into  soil.  —  Streams  of  water  rolled 
the  sharp-edged  pieces  of  rock  against  each  other,  grind- 
ing off  the  sharp  points,  making  sand  of  the  fragments,  and 
leaving  rounded  stones  and  pebbles.  When  a  boy  wishes 
nice,  smooth  stones  for  his  sling  shot,  he  knows  he  will  find 
them  in  the  bed  of  a  stream.  While  searching  for  smooth 
stones,  he  walks  over  a  sand-bar.  This  sand-bar  shows  how 
soil  was  formed.     It  is  made  partly  of  fine  gravel,  partly 

54 


HOW   THE   SOIL  WAS   P^ORMED  55 

of  similar  material  ground  into  coarse  sand,  and  of  still 
finer  material  which  is  called  soil.  When  the  stream  over- 
flows, it  sometimes  forms  a  similar  sand-bar  in  the  lowlands 
along  its  banks  (Fig.  40). 

Plants  aid  in  forming  soil.  —  At  first  nothing  grows  on 
these  sand-bars  in  the  field,  but  soon  a  few  plants  attempt 


From  Fletcner's  "  Soils."    Douliledaj,  Page  &  Co 

Fig.  40.  —  Showing  how  a  River  forms  Soil  on  the  Inside  of  the  Bend 

to  live  there.  When  these  decay  they  serve  as  fertilizers,  so 
that  the  next  generation  of  plants  is  larger.  After  some 
years  this  may  become  fertile  soil. 

Tiny  plants  called  mosses  and  llc'j^ens  sometimes  grow 
on  bare  rock.  The  roots  of  these  not  only  dissolve  the 
softer  parts  of  the  rock,  but  by  their  decay  fertilize  later 
generations  of  higher  plants,  until  in  time  a  shallow  soil 
is  formed  in  the  pockets  in  the  surface  of  the  rock. 


56  AGRICULTURE 

Soil  and  subsoil.  —  We  see  that  the  soil  is  the  finely 
divided  surface  layer  of  the  earth  in  which  higher  plants 
can  g^ow.  It  consists  of  two  portions,  which  are  not 
always  alike,  (i)  the  looser,  upper  layer,  or  soil  proper,  and 
(2)  the  more  compact  layer  under  this,  called  the  subsoil. 

The  soil  consists  chiefly  of  sand  and  clay,  but  neither 
one  of  these  is  food  for  plants.  Sand  is  useful  in  keeping 
soil  from  packing  too  closely,  and  from  being  too  wet  and 
sticky.  Clay  is  useful  in  holding  moisture  and  cementing 
the  sand  grains  together.  A  small  part  of  the  clay,  under 
proper  conditions,  can  finally  be  changed  into  plant-food. 

Much  more  useful  to  plants  as  food  are  the  decaying  re- 
mains of  earlier  generations  of  plants.  These  remains  of 
plants  are  usually  spoken  of  as  vegetable,  or  organic 
matter,  or  humus.  There  is  much  more  vegetable  matter 
in  the  soil  than  in  the  subsoil.  Hence  the  soil  produces 
much  larger  crops  than  the  subsoil  can  when  it  is  first 
brought  to  the  surface.  This  is  because  the  vegetable 
matter  in  the  soil  supplies  plant-food,  holds  moisture,  and 
makes  the  soil  loose  and  mellow,  permitting  the  roots 
and  air  to  penetrate  it.  The  subsoil,  when  first  thrown 
up  from  the  bottom  of  a  ditch,  is  unsuitable  for  plant 
growth,  but  after  it  has  been  exposed  to  the  air  for  several 
years,  plants  grow  on  this  changed  subsoil  as  well  as 
anywhere  else. 

Available  and  unavailable  plant-food  in  the  soil.  —  The 
soil  contains  all  of  the  chemical  elements  found  in  plants, 
and  many  more  besides.  All  cultivated  soils  are  rich 
enough  in  most  of  these  elements,  so  only  those  elements  or 
compounds  which  are  sometimes  scarce  need  be  considered. 


HOW   THE   SOIL   WAS   FORMED  57 

These  are  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  potash,  and  lime.  In 
a  soil  that  brings  poor  crops  there  may  sometimes  be  enough 
of  all  of  these,  but  they  may  be  held  so  tightly  by  the  iron 
or  clay  that  water  cannot  dissolve  and  carry  them  into 
plants.  Such  insoluble  substances  are  spoken  of  as  un- 
available. These  can  be  changed  into  soluble  forms,  or 
available  plant-food,  by  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  and  the  de- 
cay of  vegetable  matter.  To  make  the  plant-food  in  the  stiff 
soil  or  subsoil  useful,  therefore,  the  soil  must  be  loosened 
with  the  plow,  and  the  surplus  water  drained,  thus  letting 
in  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  Oxygen  is  called  the  restless 
element,  because  it  is  continually  seeking  change,  and 
causing  other  elements  in  the  soil  to  change  also. 

How  decay  of  vegetable  matter  prepares  plant-food.  —  The 
decay  of  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil  helps  to  make  the  soil 
elements  more  soluble,  partly  by  loosening  the  soil,  so  that 
the  oxygen  of  the  air  can  reach  all  parts  of  it.  It  also 
helps  because  the  carbonic  acid  formed  during  its  decay  is 
absorbed  by  the  water  in  the  soil ;  this  mixture  of  water 
and  carbonic  acid  has  a  much  stronger  dissolving  power 
than  pure 'water  alone.  The  rotting  of  vegetable  matter 
helps  to  soften  or  rot  the  hardest  rock  and  stiffest  soil. 
Of  course  the  decay  of  former  generations  of  plants  also 
furnishes  plant-food  directly  to  later  generations. 

Soils  not  permanently  exhausted.  —  Even  in  a  rich  soil 
only  a  small  part  of  the  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  potash, 
and  lime  is  in  a  soluble  condition.  They  become  soluble 
very  slowly  and  gradually,  so  that  roots  have  near  them 
a  small  but  continuous  supply  of  newly  prepared  food. 
This  is  well,  for  if  all  of  these  elements  in  the  soil  were  in 


58  AGRICULTURE 

a  soluble  condition,  a  succession  of  heavy  rains  would  dis- 
solve and  wash  all  of  the  plant-food  out  of  the  soil  and 
carry  it  to  the  ocean.  But  since  only  a  small  part  of  the 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash  of  the  soil  are  in  a  soluble 
condition,  no  soil  can  be  permanently  or  completely  ex- 
hausted. It  is  possible  to  restore  the  fertility  of  any  soil 
that  has  a  fair  proportion  of  clay  in  it. 

Clay  and  sand.  —  Examine  a  little  sample  of  clay  soil 
and  another  of  sandy  soil.  When  you  rub  them  between 
your  fingers  the  clay  soil  feels  smooth,  while  the  sandy 
soil  feels  coarse  and  gritty.  Sand  grains  are  hundreds  of 
times  larger  than  the  tiny  grains  of  clay.  They  are  so 
large  that  they  do  not  settle  closely  together,  and  the 
spaces  between  them  allow  water  to  run  very  rapidly 
through.     Sandy  soil,  therefore,  will  not  hold  water  well. 

We  can  scarcely  understand  how  small  the  separate 
particles  of  clay  are.  It  would  require  more  than  fifty 
thousand  fine  particles  of  clay  side  by  side  to  cover  a 
line  one  inch  long.  Since  the  grains  or  particles  of  clay 
are  so  small,  they  can  be  packed  tightly  together,  leav- 
ing very  little  space  between.  It  is  difficult,  therefore, 
for  air  and  water  to  penetrate  a  clay  soil. 

Granulation.  —  Fortunately,  in  well-cultivated,  well- 
drained,  clay  soils,  supplied  with  vegetable  matter,  a 
number  of  the  tiny  particles  cling  together  in  one  group 
or  granule.  Each  of  these  groups  acts  like  a  single  sand 
grain,  leaving  spaces  between  granules  open  enough  for 
water  to  drain  through  and  for  air  to  enter.  This  granu 
lation,  or  grouping  into  granules,  is  the  condition  the  farmer 
wishes  his  clay  soil  to  assume.     If,  however,  he  plows  when 


HOW   THE   SOIL  WAS   FORMED  59 

the  soil  is  too  wet,  the  plow  breaks  up  these  groups  and 
packs  close  together  the  tiny  particles  that  before  formed 
the  granule.  Great  clods  are  then  formed,  so  that  a  single 
plowing  when  the  clay  soil  is  too  wet  may  injure  the  field 
for  many  years. 

Coarse-  and  fine-grained  soils.  —  Soils  may  be  arranged 
in  the  following  order,  according  to  the  coarseness  of 
the  particles  of  which  they  consist,  beginning  with  the 
coarsest  and  ending  with  the  finest :  — 


Gravel. 

Fine  sand. 

Silt  loam. 

Gravelly  loam. 

Sandy  loam. 

Clay  loam. 

Coarse  sand. 

Fine  sandy  loam. 

Clay. 

Sand. 

Loam. 

The  most  satisfactory  soils  are  those  consisting  of  a  mix- 
ture of  sand  and  clay.  These  are  called  loatn  soils.  They 
have  enough  sand  to  make  them  pulverize  easily  and  drain 
well,  together  with  enough  clay  to  hold  sufficient  moisture 
for  plants  and  furnish  a  gradual  supply  of  certain  kinds  of 
plant-food.  The  coarsest  soils  become  "worn  out"  soonest. 
Clay  soils  usually  last  longer  because  they  contain  the 
largest  amount  of  total  plant-food.  They  require  more 
tillage,  however,  to  make  this  plant-food  available. 

Treatment  of  sandy  and  clay  soils.  —  You  have  just 
learned  that  a  clay  soil  must  not  be  plowed  when  wet. 
But  if  a  soil  consists  almost  wholly  of  sand,  plowing  it 
when  rather  wet  does  little  harm.  After  plowing  a  clay 
soil  the  large  lumps  must  be  broken  with  a  harrow 
before  they  dry  and  become  hard  clods.  Live-stock 
should   not  be   allowed  to   pass   over   clay   soil  while  it 


6o 


AGRICULTURE 


is   wet  because   their  tracks  make  clods,  just  as  plow- 
ing does. 

Exercise.  —  Find  what  curious  kinds  of  tiny  plants  are  growing  on 
the  bare  rock  in  some  shaded  spot. 

Dig  into  several  fields  to  learn  how  deep  is  the  mellow  soil.  What 
differences  do  you  find  between  the  soil  and  the  harder  subsoil  ?  Do 
annual  crop  plants  send  their  roots  deep  into  most  kinds  of  subsoil  ? 
Find  a  tree  that  has  been  blown  down,  or  from  around  the  roots  of 
which  the  earth  has  been  washed  away,  and  see  how  deep  its  roots  went 
into  the  subsoil. 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  Samples  of  several  soils,  as  clay,  sandy 
loam,  and  woods'  earth,  each  on  a  separate  newspaper,  where  they  can 
be  moistened  and  worked  into  mud  pies,  will  impress  the  varying  de- 
grees of  adhesiveness,  grittiness,  fineness,  and  their  probable  relation 
to  (i)  ease  of  plowing,  (2)  drainage,  and  (3)  wear  on  implements 
during  plowing. 


Fig.  41. — A  Good  School  Exekcisb 
Two  kinds  of  soil  that  have  bern  wrt  and  then  dried. 
The  loamy  soil  remains  loose  and  capable  of  growing 
plants  ;  the  day  soil  below  has  baked  and  cracked. 


SECTION   X.     SUITING   THE   CROP   TO   THE 

SOIL 

The  proportion  of  sand  to  clay  or  silt  in  the  soil  and 
subsoil  determines  not  only  how  much  water  the  soil  will 
hold,  but  also  for  what  crops  it  is  best  suited.  It  is  impor- 
tant to  learn  the  character  of  the  subsoil  by  digging  down 
below  the  layer  usually  plowed.  A  sandy  soil  with  a  grav- 
elly or  sandy,  open  subsoil  may  be  almost  worthless ;  but 
a  soil  which,  when  plowed,  looks  exactly  like  this,  but  is 
underlaid  by  a  clay  or  clay-loam  subsoil,  may  be  a  produc- 
tive and  durable  soil.  In  choosing  a  farm  or  a  field,  a 
farmer  must  look  below  the  surface. 

Best  uses  for  sandy  soils.  —  A  sandy  soil  is  usually  a 
warm  soil  for  the  reason  that  sand  absorbs  heat  rapidly. 
Another  reason  is  because  it  is  well  drained,  there  being 
but  little  water  left  in  it  to  be  heated,  thus  allowing  the 
sun's  heat  to  be  used  to  warm  the  soil  grains.  This  kind 
of  soil,  therefore,  is  one  well  suited  to  early  vegetables. 
Peaches  also  thrive  on  sandy  soils  and  cotton  is  better 
suited  to  them  than  is  corn.  This  is  because  cotton  is 
less  injured  than  corn  by  a  scarcity  of  soil  moisture.  A 
sandy  soil  is  usually  not  good  for  wheat  nor  for  hay 
grasses,  but  the  finer  grades  of  tobacco  are  grown  on  it. 
For  certain  kinds  of  tobacco  the  soils  of  the  Southern 
states  shown  on   soil  maps  as  "  Orangeburg  fine  sandy 

6i 


62  AGRICULTURE 

loam "  are  especially  suited.  Peanuts,  sweet-potatoes, 
cowpeas,  and  watermelons  are  good  crops  for  sandy  soils. 
Best  uses  for  clay  soils.  —  Since  clay  soils  contain  so 
much  water,  they  are  slow  in  warming  in  the  spring.  You 
know  that  if  you  dip  your  hand  in  water,  even  in  rather 


From  tldcher'*  "  SoiU."    Oooblcda^,  Page  ft  C». 

Fig.  4j.  —  A  Hillside  too  Steep  for  Cultivation 
It  should  be  used  for  p.-isture  or  forest. 

warm  water,  and  then  expose  it  to  the  air,  the  skin  becomes 
cool.  This  is  because  evaporation  of  water  (that  is,  the 
changing  of  water  from  a  liquid  into  the  form  of  a  gas  or 
water  vapor)  has  required  heat  and  has  drawn  this  heat 
from  the  skin.  In  a  stiff  clay  soil  much  of  the  water  must 
be  evaporated  from  the  surface.  This  uses  the  heat  that 
ought  to  be  used  in  warming  the  soil.  Hence  a  clay  soil 
is  a  cold  soil,  and  crops  growing  in  it  start  late. 


SUITING  THE   CROP  TO   THE   SOIL  63 

Clay  soils  are  moist,  and  therefore  the  best  crops  for 
them  are  those  requiring  much  water.  As  shown  in  an 
earlier  chapter,  a  crop  of  hay  requires  an  immense  amount 
of  water.  Timothy  grass,  Johnson  grass,  red  clover,  and 
most  hay  plants,  therefore,  do  well  on  clay  soils.  Apples 
neea  plenty  of  water  and  accordingly  thrive  on  the  best 
grades  of  clay  soil.  Certain  kinds  of  clay  soils  afford  the 
best  summer  pastures. 

Hilly,  rolling,  and  level  land.  —  Fields  that  consist  of 
steep  hillsides  have  a  tendency  to  wash.  They  must  be 
terraced ;  but  then  the  terraces  and  the  original  steepness 
of  the  hill  prevent  the  use  of  labor-saving  implements.  For 
this  reason  it  costs  more  to  cultivate  such  fields  than  rolling 
or  nearly  level  land.  The  tendency  to  wash  is  reduced  if 
the  hillsides  are  covered  with  a  uniform  coat  of  pasture 
plants,  such  as  Japan  clover  and  Bermuda  grass  (Fig.  42). 

Level  lands  are  often  poorly  drained  and  in  the  spring  are 
slow  to  get  in  condition  for  plowing.  When  drained, 
either  by  man  or  naturally,  such  lands  can  be  very  econom- 
ically cultivated.  For  this  reason,  drainage  ought  to  be 
the  first  thing  to  receive  attention.  The  best  labor-saving 
implements  can  be  used  and,  if  desired,  the  crop  can  be 
cultivated  in  hills  or  checks  so  as  to  be  plowed  in  two 
directions,  thus  almost  avoiding    hoeing. 

Rolling  lands  are  those  with  moderate  slopes.  They 
have  most  of  the  advantages  of  level  lands,  and  in  addition 
are  more  easily  drained. 

Crops  for  lime  soils. —  Most  cultivated  plants  grow  well 
on  a  lime  soil,  while  a  few  are  suited  only  to  such  a  soil. 
Alfalfa  and  red  clover,  both  of  them  forage  plants  belong- 


64  AGRICULTURE 

ing  to  the  bean  or  clover  family,  require  land  rich  in 
lime. 

Thus  alfalfa  succeeds  finely  on  the  best  grades  of  the 
black  lime  or  prairie  lands  in  Alabama  and  Mississippi, 
and  on  the  similar  "  black  waxy  "  lands  of  Texas.  On  the 
same  class  of  soil,  Johnson  grass  hay  is  grown  for  market. 
Red  clover  is  adapted  to  the  lime  lands  found  in  many  of 
the  valleys  in  the  northern  parts  of  some  of  the  Gulf 
states  and  to  limestone  soils  common  in  Tennessee,  Ken- 
tucky, and  the  sections  to  the  north. 

Color  of  soils.  —  If  two  soils  are  made  up  of  particles  of 
the  same  size,  the  darker  one  is  usually  the  warmer.  This 
is  because  dark  soils,  like  dark  clothes,  absorb  the  sun's 
heat.  A  light-colored,  sandy  soil,  however,  may  be  warmer 
than  a  dark  clay  soil. 

A  dark  color  generally  indicates  fertility,  and  is  due  to 
the  presence  of  much  humus. 

Exercise.  —  In  your  neighborhood  what  crops  are  generally  grown 
on  the  most  sandy  soil  ?  What  use  is  made  of  the  wettest  land  ?  How 
are  clay  lands  utilized  .••  Hilly  lands  ?  Very  black  lands  ?  What  are 
the  favorite  grass  lands  ?     Orchard  lands  ? 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —Write  to  the  Bureau  of  Soils.  Washing- 
ton, D.C.,  asking  for  a  report  on  a  soil  survey  of  your  county,  or  of  the 
region  most  like  yours.  Explain  to  the  pupils  the  nuiin  features  of  the 
colored  map  in  that  report. 


SECTION   XL     MOISTURE   IN   THE   SOIL 

The  difference  between  a  rich  and  a  poor  soil  consists 
largely  in  the  fact  that  a  rich  soil  is  usually  able  to  maintain 
enough  moisture,  but  not  too  much ;  while  the  unproductive 
soil  does  not  hold  enough  water  for  the  use  of  the  plant 
during  periods  of  dry  weather,  and  becomes  too  completely 
saturated  during  wet  weather. 

Clay  soils  hold  water.  —  Soils  differ  widely  in  the 
amount  of  moisture  that  they  can  hold.  Test  this  by  filling 
two  tomato  cans  of  equal  size  with  thoroughly  dried  soil, 
one  of  them  with  nearly  pure  sand  and  the  other  with  the 
stiffest  clay  you  can  find.  Pack  both  soils  thoroughly,  and 
gradually  add  equal  amounts  of  water  to  each.  Before 
any  dripping  from  the  clay  occurs,  water  will  have  begun 
to  drip  freely  from  the  sandy  soil  through  the  holes  in  the 
bottom  of  the  tin  can.  Thus  it  is  seen  that  clay  will  hold 
much  more  water  than  sandy  soil. 

Capillary  moisture.  — The  water  that  drains  away  from 
the  soil  is  called  free  water.  It  is  spoken  of  as  free  be- 
cause it  always  flows  toward  the  lowest  point.  If  cans  of 
soil  are  allowed  to  drain  for  a  day  or  two,  although  most 
of  the  free  water  will  be  removed,  the  soils  will  still  be 
moist.  The  moisture  remaining  in  the  soil  is  called  c&p^- 
il la  ry  moisture.  It  is  spread  out  over  the  surface  of  the 
soil  grains  in  such  thin  layers  or  films  that  it  cannot  col- 
lect in  drops  and  drain  away.     If  a  bag  of    pebbles  i§ 

F  65 


66 


AGRICULTURE 


dipped  into  a  bowl  of  water,  the  water  which  adheres  to 
their  surfaces  is  capillary  moisture.  It  forms  a  very  thin 
layer.  There  may  be  millions  upon  millions  of  soil  grains 
in  every  cubic  inch  of  soil,  and  to  cover  every  one  of  these 


Coartfj  of  Doublrdajr,  Pafr  *  Co. 

Fio.  43.  — Showi.ng  the  Amounts  of  Liquid  required  to  moisten  the  Sur- 
face OF  Every  Pebble  in  the  Tumbler  on  the  Left  and  or  Every 
Grain  of  Sand  in  that  on  the  Right 

over  its  entire  surface  with  the  thinnest  possible  coat  of 
moisture  requires  a  large  amount  of  water  (Fig.  43). 

Movements  of  free  and  of  capillary  moisture.  —  The 
farmer  endeavors  to  remove  a  part  of  the  free  water  from 
the  soil  by  drainage  and  to  retain  in  the  soil  as  much  cap- 
illary moisture  as  possible.  He  desires  the  free  water  to 
drain  away,  because  it  occupies  the  spaces  between  the 
soil  grains  and  thus  keeps  out  the  air,  which  is  needed  by 
the  roots.     Free  water  moves  only  toward  a  lower  level ; 


MOISTURE   IN   THE   SOIL  67 

but  capillary  moisture  on  the  other  hand  moves  in  any 
direction,  but  always  very  slowly.  This  is  an  advantage, 
for  if  this  moisture  moved  as  rapidly  as  the  free  water  it 
would  rise  to  the  surface  and  evaporate.  The  earth  would 
then  become  so  dry  that  plants  would  die  (Fig.  44). 

It  is  also   fortunate   for  the  farmer  that  the  capillary 


Courtesy  of  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

Fig.  44.  —  Outfit  for  showing  the  Heights  to  which  Capillary  Moisture 
RISES  IN  Soils 

moisture  moves  toward  the  dryest  soil.  Thus  root-hairs 
lying  in  contact  with  the  sheet  of  water  that  wraps  up 
one  soil  grain,  absorb  a  large  part  of  this  moisture,  but  its 


68 


AGRICULTURE 


place  is  soon  taken  by  capillary  moisture  which  moves  in 
from  moistcr  particles  (Fig  45). 

Air-spaces  check  the  movement  of  capillary  water.  — 
The  farmer's  part  in  preparing  the  ground  and  cultivating 
the  soil  consists  chiefly  in  controlling  the  movement  of 
capillary  moisture.  This  moisture  moves  about  only  when 
the  soil  particles  touch  each  other,  so  that  the  dry  can 

borrow  from  the  damp 
-a  grain.  If  an  air-space 
occurs  between  two  soil 
particles,  moisture  will  not 
move  across  this.  The  soil 
best  prepared  for  seeds  or 
roots  is  one  having  no 
large  air-spaces  between  the 
particles, —  in  other  words, 
a  soil  that  is  well  settled 
or  moderately  compact,  but 
which  has  been  loosened  up  some  time  before  the  seeds 
are  planted. 

The  farmer  first  loosens  his  soil,  then  permits  the  lower 
layers  to  become  settled,  and  later,  after  the  crop  begins 
to  grow,  he  stirs  the  surface.  The  surface  layer  is  stirred 
in  order  to  make  large  air-spaces,  that  will  prevent  the 
moisture  a  little  deeper  down  from  coming  to  the  sur- 
face and  being  evaporated  and  carried  off  by  the  wind. 
Earthworms  are  found  under  logs,  boards,  and  stones  be- 
cause these  places  are  moist,  while  the  ground  around  is  dry. 
The  moisture  in  the  soil  cannot  easily  rise  up  through  the 
logs,  boards,  or  stones  and  evaporate.     The  gardener  makes 


Fig.    45.  —  Moisture  on    Root-hairs 
AND  Soil  Grains,  greatly  enlarged 
e,  main  root;  h,  root-hair,     i,  air-space; 
3,  soil  grain ;  3,  film  of  water  surround- 
ing soil  grains. 


MOISTURE   IN   THE   SOIL  69 

use  of  this  principle  when  he  places  a  layer  of  leaves  over 
strawberries,  potatoes,  or  any  crop  that  he  wishes  to  keep 
well  supplied  with  moisture.  He  calls  such  a  layer  of 
leaves  a  mulch,  which  simply  means  a  cover  to  protect  the 
soil  against  evaporation.  The  farmer  cannot  afford  to 
place  layers  of  leaves  over  his  fields,  but  he  can  afford  to 
make  a  mulch  by  using  material  that  is  already?  there. 
He  can  make  a  mulch  of  the  soil  itself,  proviaed  the  top 
layer  can  be  made  loose  and  dry.  How  Xhh  is  done  will 
be  learned  in  the  next  chapter. 

Exercise.  —  Repeat  with  several  soils  the  "dripping  test"  given  in 
the  second  paragraph  (p.  65).  Which  of  these  soils  is  least  in  need  of 
artificial  drainage? 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  If  practicable,  let  pupils  weigh  cans  of 
two  different  soils,  before  adding 
water  and  after  dripping  ceases. 
How  much   water  does   each  re- 
tain?    Emphasize   the   difference 
in  the  water-holding  power  of  the 
two  soils.     If  possible,  compactly 
fill  two  lamp  chimneys,  or  bottles 
with  the  bottoms  off,  with  rather 
dry  soil,  one  a  coarse  sand,  and 
the  other  a  clay  (Fig.  46).     Tie   ^^^    X^howing  the'h^ht  to 
cloth  over  one  end  of  each  to  re-       which  Moisture  rises  in  differ- 
tain  the   soil.     Several  hours  be-       ent  Soils 

fore  class  time,  set  both  in  a  basin  ^^  j^^^^  coarse-grained  soil;  on  right, 
in  which  the  water  is  kept  about  fine-grained  soil, 

an   inch  deep.     Notice  difference 

in  height  to  which  capillary  moisture  rises  in  each.  Crosby's  Exer- 
cises 31,  33,  40,  41,  will  further  impress  these  principles. 


SECTION  XII.     PREPARATION  AND  CULTIVA- 
TION  OF  THE   SOIL 

Before  the  seed  is  sown  the  land  is  plowed.  The  main 
object  of  early  plowing  is  to  form  a  loose,  mellow  layer  of 
soil  through  which  the  roots  can  spread  in  any  direction. 

When  to  plow.  —  When  the  plowing  is  well  done,  the 
soil  is  broken  into  small  particles.  This  will  not  re- 
sult, however,  if  the  soil  is  very  dry  when  plowed,  for  then 
great  lumps  and  clods  are  turned  over.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  soil  does  not  pulverize  well  if  plowed  when  wet 
enough  for  it  to  stick  together  and  to  show  a  shiny, 
polished  surface  on  the  furrow  slice.  Only  experience  will 
tell  just  how  wet  or  how  dry  the  soil  should  be  when 
plowed.  Extremes  should  be  avoided.  Plowing  when  the 
land  is  very  dry  means  poor  plowing,  but  it  does  the  land 
no  permanent  harm.  But  to  plow  land  when  it  is  too  wet 
may  injure  the  soil  for  several  years,  especially  if  it  con- 
tains much  clay. 

A  good  seed-bed.  — In  the  previous  section  it  was  learned 
that  capillary  moisture  moves  toward  the  roots  best  when 
the  soil  has  no  very  large  air-spaces.  It  is  often  well, 
therefore,  to  plow  land  a  number  of  weeks  before  it  is  to 
be  occupied  by  the  roots  of  the  crop.  An  opportunity 
is  thus  given  the  soil  to  settle  and  become  compact. 

A  seed  must  have  moisture  in  order  to  germinate,  and 

70 


PREPARATION   AND   CULTIVATION   OF   THE  SOIL     71 

the  best  seed-bed  is  one  compact  enough  to  permit  the 
capillary  moisture  to  move  toward  the  seed,  and  yet  loose 
enough  to  permit  air  also  to  come  in  contact  with  the  seed. 
Roots,  as  well  as  seeds,  require  enough  compactness  of  soil 
for  the  easy  movement  of  capillary  water  toward  the 
thirsty  root  hairs,  and  likewise  sufficient  looseness  of  soil 
to  admit  a  little  air  and  to  allow  the  roots  to  grow  freely 
in  any  direction. 

If  the  soil  is  in  good  condition  when  plowed,  the  neces- 
sary compactness  can  often  be  had  simply  by  allowing 
several  weeks 
for  the  rains  to 
make  it  compact 
or  to  settle  it. 
Sometimes  it  is 
necessary  to  use 
implements    for  Fig.  47. -A  Plank  Drag 

this  purpose,  especially  the  harrow,  the  plank  drag,  or  the 
roller.  Clods  are  most  easily  broken  when  first  plowed. 
Let  the  harrow  therefore  follow  close  behind  the  plow. 
After  plowing  or  rolling,  the  harrow  should  be  used  im- 
mediately so  as  to  leave  on  the  surface  a  loose  layer  of 
dry  soil.  This  loose  surface  layer  contains  so  many  and 
such  large  air-spaces  that  the  moisture  from  the  compacted 
layer  below  cannot  easily  cross  these  and  rise  to  the  sur- 
face, where  it  would  be  evaporated.  Air-spaces  in  the 
loose  surface  layer  do  good  by  imprisoning  the  moisture 
in  the  lower  layers. 

v^The  largest  crops  are  generally  made   on  those   soils 
where  the  roots  of  cultivated  plants  grow  deepest.     This 


7a  AGRICULTURE 

shows  that  it  is  best  to  plow  deep  unless  there  are  reasons 
for  not  doing  so.  If  land  is  plowed  two  or  three  inches 
deeper  than  it  has  ever  been  plowed  before,  there  is  danger 
that  the  first  crop  after  such  deep  plowing  will  be  injured  by 
the  subsoil  which  is  brought  to  the  surface.  This  subsoil 
often  dries  and  forms  a  hard  crust  that  interferes  with  plant 
growth.  Moreover,  the  plant-food  in  this  layer  of  sub- 
soil may  not  be  in  such  a  form  that  the  plant  can  immedi- 
ately use  it.  But  the  longer  it  lies  on  the  surface  exposed 
to  the  air,  the  more'  fertile  it  becomes.  Generally,  deep 
plowing  is  beneficial  to  the  second  and  the  third  crops, 
even  if  not  to  the  first  crop. 

Subsoil  plowing.  —  The  depth  of  plowing  can  be  in- 
creased without  any  danger  of  injuring  the  first  crop  if 
each  year  the  plowing  is  about  one  inch  deeper  than  the 
year  before.  The  depth  of  the  plowed  soil  can  be  suddenly 
increased  by  the  use  of  a  subsoil  plow,  which  simply  loosens 
the  subsoil,  but  does  not  bring  it  to  the  surface.  In  using 
a  subsoil  plow  we  must  make  sure  that  the  lower  layers 
of  soil  are  dry  enough  to  be  pulverized.  Subsoiling  is 
usually  best  done  in  the  fall,  because  at  this  time  the  sub- 
soil is  apt  to  be  dry  and  capable  of  crumbling.  Harm  and 
no  good  comes  from  plowing  the  subsoil  when  it  is  very 
damp. 

When  to  cultivate.  —  Most  cultivation  consists  in  de- 
stroying the  plants  not  needed  and  in  forming  a  shallow 
layer  of  loose  soil  at  the  surface  of  the  ground.  It  is  just 
as  important  to  form  this  mulch,  or  loose,  light  layer  of 
soil,  as  it  is  to  destroy  the  weeds.  Cultivation  is  often 
needed  when  there  are  no  weeds.     We  may  be  sure  that  it 


PREPARATION   AND   CULTIVATION   OF  THE    SOIL     73 

is  needed  whenever  a  surface  crust  forms  on  the  land, 
as  after  a  rain. 

By  breaking  this  crust  and  the  adjacent  parts  of  the 
soil  with  a  cultivating  implement,  a  layer  of  loose  soil  is 
formed  that  contains  many  large  air-spaces.  Across  these 
air-spaces  moisture  cannot  move,  but  must  remain  in  the 
lower  layers  near  the  root.  A  crust  must  not  be  allowed 
to  form ;  cultivation  will  prevent  it. 

Exercise.  —  Take  two  pieces  of  chalk  of  the  same  length.  Break 
one  in  half.  Pour  a  thin  layer  of  ink  into  a  shallow  tin  ckn  or  can  top. 
At  the  same  moment  stand  upright  in  this  ink  on  their  flat  ends  the 
unbroken  and  the  broken  piece  of  chalk.  Carefully  place  the  upper  por- 
tion of  the  broken  piece  on  its  lower  part,  in  the  position  it  occupied 
before  being  broken.  Watch  the  ink  rise  upward  into  both.  Notice 
that  when  the  liquid  reaches  the  crack,  its  rise  is  checked  by  the  air- 
space between  the  two  broken  pieces  of  chalk.  This  shows  how  air- 
spaces in  cultivated  soil  keep  moisture  from  rising  rapidly  to  the  sur- 
face, where  it  would  be  evaporated. 

A  similar  experiment  can  be  made  with  entire  and  broken  lumps  of 
sugar  placed  in  a  thin  layer  of  coffee. 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  Designate  two  or  three  pupils  to  make 
the  following  experiment :  — 

Fill  five  similar  open  cans  with  the  same  amount  of  damp  soil, 
packed  in  equally.  Leave  one  as  it  is,  thoroughly  cultivate  one  to  a 
depth  of  one  inch,  cover  the  others  respectively  with  mulches  (one  inch 
deep)  of  leaves,  dry  sand,  and  dust  from  under  the  house.  As  soon  as 
prepared,  and  again  after  a  few  days,  weigh  all  cans  and  see  how  much 
water  each  has  lost,  so  as  to  learn  which  best  retains  the  moisture  in 
the  lower  layer  of  soil.     See  also  Crosby's  Exercises  42  and  44. 


SECTION   XIII.     TERRACING  AND   DRAINING 

After  a  heavy  rainfall  the  water  in  the  ditches  and  the 
furrows  is  muddy.  This  mud  is  soil  —  the  best  kind  of 
soil,  too  —  that  the  currents  of  water  have  washed  away. 


Fig.  48.  —  A  Field  sdined  by  Washes 

The  heavy  rains  not  only  bear  away  the  fine  particles  of 
soil,  but  in  low  places  where  much  water  collects  and 
where  the  little  currents  are  strong,  grains  of  sand  and 

74 


TERRACING   AND   DRAINING  75 

fine  gravel  are  torn  loose  and  hurried  along.  The  re- 
moval of  the  soil  leaves  a  wash  or  scar  in  the  field.  Every 
rain  repeats  the  process,  so  that  in  time  a  gully  or  ditch 
deep"  enough  to  hide  a  horse  and  rider  is  formed.  Soon 
the  water  in  each  row  that  crosses  this  wash  cuts  a  little 
channel  down  to  the  main  gully  and,  in  time,  the  field  be- 
comes unfit  for  cultivation  (Fig.  48).  If  the  first  break  is 
mended  the  field  will  continue  to  produce  good  crops 
instead  of  becoming  worthless.  The  old  saying  that  "  a 
stitch  in  time  saves  nine  "  is  very  true  in  preventing  the 
washing  away  of  the  soil. 

Terracing,  —  Most  hillsides  in  this  climate  tend  to  wash 
if  cultivated.     Terracing  is  a  system  of  protecting  hillsides 


r- ■■ ■ 

m/mg/UtK/i^^ 

W^ 

Fig.  49. — -A  Hillside  terraced  to  prevent  Washing 

against  washing.  A  terrace  is  a  low  bank  or  ridge,  winding 
around  a  hill  or  slope,  but  always  maintaining  nearly  a 
perfect  level.  To  keep  on  a  level  the  terrace  often  has  to 
wind  about  with  many  an  inconvenient  curve  and  crook. 

When  the  top  of  a  terrace  is  kept  even  and  level,  it  re- 
duces the  amount  of  washing.  The  level  top-Hne  permits 
the  water  to  run  over  the  top  of  the  terrace  bank  along 


y6  AGRICULTURE 

its  entire  length  in  the  form  of  a  very  thin  sheet.  Water 
moving  in  a  very  thin  sheet  meets  with  so  much  friction 
from  the  ground  that  it  has  to  move  slowly  and  therefore 
cannot  exert  much  force  to  tear  away  particles  of  soil. 


From  rietcher'a  "  SoiU."     DoublmUy,  Page  ft  Co. 

Fig.  50.  —  Showing  Washes  started  by  kunninc  Rows  straight 
UP  the  Hill 

How  a  terrace  is  made.  —  By  means  of  either  a  terracing 
level,  or  a  home-made  terracing  triangle  (Fig.  51),  a  curving 
line  is  marked  out  near  the  top  of  the  hillside  by  placing 
stakes  at  intervals  of  about  ten  steps,  all  of  the  stakes  being 
on  the  same  level.  In  the  same  way  stake  the  next  terrace 
line  at  a  vertical  distance  of  three  feet  lower  down  the  hill 
on  gentle  slopes,  or  five  feet  lower  on  very  steep  slopes. 
Repeat  the  operation  until  all  the  terraces  are  staked  out. 
Now  mark  each  line  of  stakes  by  means  of  a  furrow,  not 
passing  exactly  under  the  stakes  but  very  near  them,  try- 
ing to  make  the  curves  in  the  terrace  as  slight  and  gradual 


TERRACING   AND   DRAINING 


77 


as  possible.  Below  this  furrow  leave  a  strip  of  hard,  un- 
broken ground  of  about  two  feet  wide.  On  this  throw 
furrows  from  above  and  below,  forming  a  slight  ridge  or 
bank.  If  at  first  this  bank  is  not  level  or  not  high  enough, 
the  work  must  be  completed  with  shovel  and  hoe. 

A  terrace  on  sandy,  porous  soil  will  hold  back  all  the 
water  that  falls  except  during  and  after  very  heavy  rains. 
Deep  plowing  will  aid  terraces  to  do  this  and  will  often 
keep  them  from  breaking,  even  after  heavy  downpours. 
Breaks,  however,  will  sometimes  occur,  especially  before 


Ground  Line 


Fig.  51.  —  A  Home-made  Level  for  locating  Terrace  Lines 


weeds  and  grass  have  covered  the  terrace  and  bound  it  to- 
gether with  their  roots.  Such  breaks  should  be  mended 
promptly,  using  neither  logs,  stones,  nor  trash,  but  soil 
taken  from  just  below  the  terrace  and  some  distance  from 
the  break. 

A  crop  of  cowpeas  or  cotton  on  the  terrace  bank  keeps 
the  field  much  neater  and  more  free  from  weeds.  Terraces 
may  be  covered  with  some  winter-growing  plant,  the 
living  roots  of  which  strengthen  them  in  winter.  Among 
the  best  plants  for  this  purpose  are  bur  clover,  vetch,  of 
Texas  blue-grass. 


78  AGRICULTURE 

Terraces  often  inconvenient,  but  necessary.  —  Terraces 
decrease  washing,  but  make  many  short  rows,  increase  the 
cost  of  cultivation,  and  interfere  with  the  use  of  improved 
implements.  They  are  needed  only  in  hilly  regions.  In 
Virginia  and  Tennessee  and  northward  they  are  seldom 
used,  partly  because  wheat  or  oats,  pasture  or  hay  plants, 
alternate  with  hoed  crops  and  the  fields  are  not  cultivated 
so  continuously  as  in  the  cotton  belt.  Farmers  in  the 
Gulf  states  who  do  likewise,  and  who  plow  deep,  can 
often  do  without  terraces  as  long  as  no  washes  appear  in 
the  fields. 

What  lands  need  drainage.  —  Drainage  is  needed  on 
fields  where  water  stands  in  ponds  for  a  long  time  after  a 
rain,  where  water  oozes  to  the  surface  making  seepy  spots, 
and  on  land  where  swamp  plants  grow  freely  or  where  water 
stands  in  a  post  hole  within  several  feet  of  the  surface,  dur- 
ing the  growing  season.  Fortunately  the  greater  part  of  the 
hill  lands  of  the  Gulf  and  South  Atlantic  states  needs  little 
or  no  artificial  drainage  except  that  intended  to  prevent 
washing.  On  bottom  land  and  on  some  very  stiff  or  seepy 
upland  fields,  however,  drainage  is  generally  needed. 

Drainage  makes  roots  go  deeper  into  the  soil.  —  While 
the  purpose  of  terracing  is  to  cause  porous  soils  to  absorb 
most  of  the  water  that  falls  on  them,  in  order  to  prevent 
washing,  the  object  of  drainage  is  to  remove  the  excess  of 
water  from  soils  that  otherwise  would  hold  too  much  water. 

Strange  as  it  may  seem  at  first,  plants  are  better  able  to 
endure  a  drought  on  drained  than  on  undrained  land.  This 
is  because  the  roots  go  only  as  deep  into  the  soil  as  the  air 
penetrates  freely.     Drainage  opens  channels  for  the  air  to 


TERRACING  AND   DRAINING  79 

penetrate  farther,  and  in  drained  soils  therefore  plant  roots 
are  deeper  than  in  soil  that  has  ordinarily  been  saturated. 
When  the  upper  soil  dries,  the  shallow-rooted  plants  in 
undrained  lands  are  no  longer  able  to  obtain  moisture  ; 
but  the  deep-rooted  plants  in  drained  soil,  being  nearer  the 
ever  moist  subsoil,  are  uninjured. 

Other  benefits  from  drainage.  —  Drainage  makes  soils 
more  crumbly  and  less  inclined  to  be  cloddy.  It  increases 
in  the  soil  the  number  of  helpful  germs,  or  tiny  living 
plants,  that  change  vegetable  matter  into  available  plant- 
food.  This  it  does  by  supplying  an  abundance  of  air,  with- 
out which  they  cannot  live.  Moreover,  drainage  makes  the 
land  ready  for  plowing  earlier.  Plants  start  to  grow  earlier 
on  drained  than  on  wet  soil,  for  drainage  warms  the  soil 
by  drawing  off  a  part  of  the  water  that  would  otherwise 
evaporate,  and  which,  in  evaporating,  would  cool  the  soil. 

Two  classes  of  drains.  —  The  usual  drain  is  an  open  ditch. 
Another  kind  is  the  covered  or  underdrain.  A  field  in 
which  there  are  underdrains  shows  no  sign  of  them,  for  they 
ate  two  to  four  feet  below  the  surface  and  completely 
covered  over.  One  of  their  advantages  over  open  ditches 
is  that  crops  can  be  grown  above  the  drains. 

Underdrains.  —  These  are  usually  made  of  tiles,  which  are 
hollow  tubes  of  burnt  clay  one  foot  long,  laid  end  to  end. 
The  water  runs  into  them  at  the  joints,  which  do  not  fit 
together  tightly,  and  trickles  in  through  the  porous  walls 
(Figs.  52,  53).  Sometimes  underdrains  are  made  of  four 
narrow  planks  nailed  together  like  a  long  box,  with 
numerous  holes  for  water  to  enter.  In  other  cases  they 
are  made  of  three  largfe  poles  in  a  triangular  pile,  and 


80 


AGRICULTURE 


sometimes  of  old  bricks  or  stones.  Although  these  arc 
buried  several  feet  in  the  ground,  water  flows  down  to 
them,  thus  deepening  and  airing  the  soil.     They  usually 


Fig.  5a.  —  Drain  Tiles  in  Position  Under- 
ground 


Flc.  53.  —  End  View  or 
Drain  Tile  before  ths 
Ditch  is  Filled 


drain   the   soil    more   completely   and    to   greater  depth 
than  do  ordinary  open  ditches. 

Open  ditches.  —  According  to  their  use,  the  principal 
kinds  of  open  ditches  are  :  — 

1.  Canals,  or  very  large  ditches. 

2.  Deep  drainage  ditches. 

3.  Hillside  ditches  (usually  shallow  ditches). 

The  water  in  open  ditches  often  carries  much  mud  and 
other  fine  material.  When  the  current  is  rapid,  this  soil 
material  is  carried  onward  by  the  water,  and  is  not  depos- 
ited. But  if  any  part  of  the  ditch  is  less  steep  than  the 
portion  above  it,  the  water  must  necessarily  travel  more 
slowly.  A  sand-bar  generally  forms  where  the  current  is 
thus  checked,  for  the  slower  current  is  unable  to  carry  its 


TERRACING  AND   DRAINING  8 1 

burden  of  fine  sand  and  other  soil  particles.  These  are 
thrown  down  and  fill  the  ditch,  making  work  for  the  farmer 
in  opening  it  again.  The  banks  of  a  deep  open  ditch 
should  not  be  upright  nor  nearly  upright,  for  they  invari- 
ably cave  in,  and  the  earth  fills  the  ditch. 

It  is  a  good  rule  for  a  ditch  to  have  a  uniform  grade, 
steep  enough  to  carry  off  the  water  without  filling  the 
ditch  with  soil,  and  yet  not  so  steep  that  the  current  will 
cut  deep  into  the  bottom  of  the  ditch.  This  grade  varies 
with  the  dimensions  of  the  ditch,  as  you  will  learn  in  larger 
books  on  drainage.  For  small  ditches  there  is  usually 
from  three  to  five  inches  of  fall  in  every  one  hundred  feet. 

Exercise.  —  Walk  over  a  field  and  notice  the  little  washes  just  be- 
ginning. Think  of  a  way  by  which  each  one  could  be  stopped.  When 
a  ditch  or  river  makes  a  sand-bar  at  a  curve,  is  the  sand-bar  on  the 
inner  or  on  the  outer  side  of  curve  ?  Why  ?  Watch  a  winding  brook  as 
it  flows  and  learn  why  a  ditch  or  river  tends  to  become  more  and  more 
crooked  (Fig.  40) .  Look  at  one  of  the  ditches  on  a  farm  that  you 
know  and  plan  how  it  could  be  improved. 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  If  a  rain  occurs  soon  after  this  lesson 
has  been  studied,  point  out  that  the  current  is  strong  and  washing  is 
possible  only  in  those  places  on  the  school  yard  or  an  adjoining  field 
where  water  collects,  and  not  where  it  is  spread  in  a  thin  sheet.  Does 
washing  occur  on  the  bare  or  on  the  grass-covered  parts  of  the  school 
yard?  Perhaps  some  pupil's  father  has  a  drainage-level  and  will  bring 
it  to  school  and  show  the  class  how  to  use  it.  If  he  will  lend  it,  the 
directions  above  will  be  sufficient  guide  for  you  to  use  it  in  locating 
terrace  lines.  Why  not  have  a  short  excursion  for  using  the  level  and 
for  inspecting  ditches  and  streams? 


SFXTION  XIV.    HOW  THE   SOIL  BECOMES 

POOR 

Surface  washing  is  one  of  the  means  by  which  land 
becomes  poor,  and  it  is  one  that  can  be  prevented  by 
proper  use  of  ditches  and  terraces  and  by  better  methods 
of  farming.  If  any  fields  are  so  steep  that  terraces  or 
ditches  will  not  protect  them  against  surface  washing,  they 
should  be  allowed  to  grow  up  in  useful  trees.  Otherwise 
they  should  be  planted  to  some  grass  or  grazing  plant,  the 
matted  roots  of  which  will  do  much  to  hold  the  soil  in 
place.  Bermuda  grass  is  one  of  the  best  of  these  soil- 
binding  plants.  When  this  is  not  wanted,  other  grasses 
or  clovers  can  be  used  instead. 

Leaching.  —  On  all  soils  there  is  a  loss  of  fertility  that 
cannot  be  seen  and  is  often  not  suspected.  This  is  leach- 
ing or  the  dissolving  of  plant-food  by  the  rain  water  and 
the  draining  of  this  water  and  of  the  dissolved  plant-food 
in  it  through  the  soil,  and  into  the  streams.  This  loss 
is  greater  than  any  other  in  our  Southern  climate.  It 
occurs  chiefly  during  the  winter,  when  rains  are  heaviest 
and  when  there  are  no  living  roots  to  use  the  soluble 
plant-food.  It  can  be  prevented  by  causing  living  plants 
to  occupy  the  fields  during  the  winter.  Wheat,  rye,  crim- 
son clover,  or  any  other  plants  in  active  growth  during  the 
winter  send  their  roots  throughout  the  soil.     These  roots 

83 


HOW   THE   SOIL   BECOMES   POOR  83 

absorb  the  soluble  plant-food,  leaving  very  little  that  can 
be  dissolved  by  the  rain  water  as  it  drains  through  the  soil. 
Even  weeds  that  keep  green  during  the  winter  do  this 
much  good. 

Loss  of  vegetable  matter.  —  Another  cause  responsible 
for  much  of  the  poor  soil  in  the  South  is  the  loss  of  vege- 
table matter.  This  occurs  whenever  the  farmer  grows 
corn,  cotton,  or  any  other  crop  that  is  kept  thoroughly 
cultivated,  and  does  not  leave  on  the  land  a  large  amount 
of  roots,  leaves,  or  stems.  Fire  is  one  of  the  farmer's 
worst  enemies,  because  it  destroys  vegetable  matter  needed 
to  improve  the  soil. 

When  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil  disappears,  the  soil 
becomes  lighter  in  color,  drier  in  dry  weather,  more  cloddy, 
and  harder  to  work.  Clay  soils  then  become  too  compact 
for  roots  to  thrive  in  them.  In  dry  weather  the  crop  on 
such  land  is  parched  and  stunted  or  ruined,  while  on  simi- 
lar land,  well  supplied  with  rotted  vegetable  matter,  the 
crop  is  much  better  able  to  withstand  drought.  This  is 
partly  because  rotted  vegetable  matter  is  somewhat  like 
a  sponge  in  having  the  power  to  hold  moisture.  When 
the  roots  come  in  contact  with  this  decayed  vegetable 
matter,  they  absorb  its  moisture  and  also  use  a  part  of  it 
for  food. 

The  farmer  can  replace  the  vegetable  matter  that  dis- 
appears where  clean  cultivated  crops  are  continually 
grown  by  producing  an  occasional  crop  that  leaves 
large  amounts  of  roots  or  foliage  and  stems  on  the 
ground.  Some  of  the  crops  that  thus  increase  the  sup- 
ply of  vegetable  matter  are  the  clovers,  cowpeas,  and  kin- 


84  AGRICULTURE 

dred  plants,  and  the  grasses  that  form  a  sod  or  dense 
covering  over  the  entire  surface.  The  surest  and  cheapest 
way  for  the  fanner  to  enrich  his  land  and  to  make 
larger  profits  in  fanning  is  by  constantly  adding  vege- 
table  matter. 

Sale  of  plant-food  in  crops.  —  If  a  farmer  every  year 
hauls  crops  of  grain,  or  hay,  or  potatoes  from  his  field  with- 
out putting  anything  back,  there  will  come  a  time  when  he 
will  say  that  the  field  is  too  poor  to  cultivate.  Crops  differ 
greatly  in  the  kind  and  amount  of  plant-food  they  remove 
from  the  soil.  The  lint  of  cotton  and  the  sugar  of  sugar 
cane  consist  almost  entirely  of  materials  drawn  from  the 
air,  and  so  these  products  remove  almost  no  plant-food. 
Yet  cotton  may  make  the  soil  poorer  because  its  clean  cul- 
tivation causes  the  loss  of  vegetable  matter;  because  its 
seed  removes  considerable  plant-food ;  and  most  of  all, 
because  it  leaves  the  land  without  living  roots  during  the 
winter,  and  thus  permits  the  rain  to  leach  and  to  rob  the 
soil.  Sugar  cane  may  be  an  exhausting  crop  because  the 
stalks  that  are  carried  trom  the  field  contain  much  plant- 
food  and  because  the  leaves  are  generally  burned.  This 
does  not  mean  that  exhausting  crops  should  not  be  grown, 
but  that  something  must  be  returned  to  the  land  in  exchange 
for  what  is  removed. 

Lack  of  drainage  makes  soils  unproductive-  —  All  the 
causes  of  soil-impoverishment  mentioned  are  due  to  sub- 
stances taken  from  the  soil.  They  have  all  been  forms 
of  subtraction.  There  is,  however,  an  addition  to  the 
soil  that  may  make  it  poor.  Too  much  water  injures 
the  soil  and  the  crop  if  it  is  not  drained  away  either  by 


HOW   THE   SOIL  BECOMES   POOR 


85 


the    porous    nature    of    the    soil    or    by    ditches    cut    by 
the  farmer.    This  subject  was  discussed  in  the  last  section. 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  Ask  your  pupils  to  explain  how  lye  is 
made  from  ashes  kept  in  hoppers.  Point  out  that  this  process  is 
leaching.-  Leaching  does  more  harm  to  rich  than  to  poor  soils.  This 
process  removes  from  the  soil  chiefly  nitrogen  and  little  or  no  phosphate 
and  potash.  The  loss  of  plant-food  due  to  the  sale  of  lint  cotton  and 
of  cotton  seed  is  shown  in  Fig.  94. 


Fig.  54. — The  Poor  Subsoil 

In  the  foreground  the  top  soil  has  been  removed  by  grading.     Note  the  contrast 

with  the  corn  on  normal  soil. 


SECTION     XV.      HOW    TREES    AND    LEGUMI- 
NOUS  PLANTS   IMPROVE  THE    SOIL 

In  a  forest,  year  after  year,  the  trees  drop  their  leaves; 
the  decayed  leaves  and  roots  make  the  soil  very  loose  and 
rich.  When  the  trees  are  removed,  the  "new-ground"  pro- 
duces good  crops  that  use  the  vegetable  matter  as  food. 
The  crops  are  good  on  "  new-ground "  also,  Wcause 
the  humus  in  dry  weather  holds  moisture  like  a  sponge. 
Drought,  therefore,  is  not  much  felt  by  crops  on  land  con- 
taining much  humus.  When  plowed,  the  dark,  loose  soil 
crumbles  readily,  for  the  reason  that  vegetable  matter  in 
the  soil  keeps  the  particles  of  clay  from  sticking  together 
and  from  turning  up  in  great  useless  clods. 

Resting  land  not  the  quickest  way  to  enrich  it  —  Farm- 
ers have  learned  that  even  a  crop  of  weeds  adds  vegetable 
matter,  and  so  they  sometimes  leave  certain  poor  fields 
uncultivated  for  a  year  or  two  to  "rest"  or  improve. 
Such  improvement  of  the  land  is  slow  under  any  conditions. 

Making  land  fertile  by  growing  certain  crops.  —  Differ- 
ent plants  are  very  unlike  in  the  value  of  the  vegetable 
matter  they  add  to  the  soil.  Those  that  make  the  best 
fertilizer  are  the  plants  rich  in  nitrogen.  Look  carefully 
at  the  picture  (Fig.  i  lo)  and  notice  how  much  more  com 
grew  on  a  square  yard  where  vetch  plants  had  grown  the 
year  before.   Twice  as  large  a  crop  of  oats,  wheat,  or  hay  has 

86 


HOW  TREES  AND  PLANTS  IMPROVE  THE  LAND   8/ 

been  grown  where  cowpeas  had  been  the  year  before  as 
where  no  soil-improving  crop  had  grown. 

How  to  know  plants  that  improve  the  soil.  —  The  plants 
that  are  most  valuable  for  plowing  under  to  enrich  the  land 


Fig.  55. —  Leaves  of  Leguminous  Plants 
I,  bean;  2,  hairy  vetch;  3,  pea;  4,  Akike  clover;  5,  red  clover;  6,  white  clover; 
7,  sweet-pea;  8,  peanut;  9,  black  locust ;  10,  sweet  clover:  11,  alfalfa;  12,  soy- 
bean. 

are  all  closely  akin.  The  clovers,  cowpeas,  vetches,  and 
similar  plants  belong  to  the  bean  family.  Legumes,  or 
leguminous  plants,  is  the  name  given  to  them.  All  of  the 
legumes  the  farmer  makes  use  of  have  flowers  shaped  like 
the  flower  of  the  garden  pea,  sweet-pea,  and  cowpea.     The 


88  AGRICULTURE 

flower  of  each  of  these  consists  of  (i)  a  broad  petal 
standing  up  somewhat  like  the  wings  of  a  butterfly  at 
rest,  (2)  a  folded  portion  that  reminds  us  of  the  butter- 
fly's body,  and  (3)  a  petal  standing  up  straight  and  alone 
on  each  side  of  the  folded  part.     The  leaves  of  common 

leguminous  plants  are  com- 
pound, that  is,  made  up  of 
several  smaller  parts  called 
leaflets  (Fig.  55).  The  seeds 
are  in  pods  that  split  along 
both  edges  when  ripe. 

You  will  quickly  see  that 
garden  peas,  cowpeas,  sweet- 
peas,  locust  trees,  and  some 
plants  called  weeds  have 
blossoms  of  this  shape.  The 
clovers  have  very  different 
heads,  more  like  the  shape 
of  the  end  of  a  finger.  Each 
clover  head  is  not  a  single 
flower,  however,  but  a  mass 

Each  of  the  little  flowers 
has  the  same  general  shape  as  the  pea  blossom.  Plants 
on  which  the  flowers  are  of  this  shape  are  found  to  make 
the  soil  richer.  These  plants  have  bean-like  pods  (Fig.  59). 
Tubercles  or  nodules  on  the  roots  of  legumes.  —  Care- 
fully dig  up  cowpea,  clover,  and  other  legumes  without 
stripping  off  the  smaller  roots.  Do  you  not  find  little 
round  or  pear-shaped  knots  attached  to  the  roots  ?    This 


HOW  TREES   AND   PLANTS   IMPROVE   THE   LAND       89 
is  an  indication  that  the  plants  are  legumes  and  that  they 


Fig.  57.  —  Tubercles  on  the  Roots  of  a  Young  Vetch  Plant 

are  at  work  making  the  soil  rich.     These  knots  are  root 
tubercles  or  root  nodules  (Figs.  56,  57). 

The  farmer's  tiny  helpers.  —  Each  tubercle  is  a  busy 


90  AGRICULTURE 

workshop  inhabited  by  multitudes  of  germs,  so  small  that 
25,cxx)  of  them  could  be  placed  side  by  side  on  a  line  one 
inch  long.  These  germs  are  actively  at  work  helping  the 
farmer.  The  tubercle  in  which  they  live  serves  as  a  house 
for  them.  It  is  really  a  fertilizer  factory,  and  the  germs 
are  the  workmen,  busy  making  fertilizer  that  will  be 
used  by  the  plant  on  the  roots  of  which  the  tubercle 
grows.  The  plant  on  which  the  tubercle  forms  is  called 
the  host  plant.  It  furnishes  the  germs  in  the  tubercle 
with  starchy  food  made  by  the  leaves.  In  exchange  the 
tubercles  send  up  through  the  sap  a  fertilizer  rich  in 
nitrogen.  This  fertilizer  nitrogen  is  constantly  being 
made  by  the  germs  in  the  tubercle  from  the  nitrogen  gas 
in  the  air.  The  farmer  can  help  the  germs  to  manu- 
facture fertilizer  nitrogen  by  plowing  the  land  before  sow- 
ing legumes.  Plowing  or  cultivation  permits  an  abundance 
of  air,  with  the  nitrogen  gas  which  it  contains,  to  pass 
through  the  loose  soil  to  the  tubercle,  where  the  tiny 
workmen  are  ready  to  use  it  for  the  farmer's  benefit. 

What  the  cowpea  or  clover  plant  does  with  nitrogen. — 
Let  us  consider  what  becomes  of  the  nitrogen  a  tubercle 
sends  up  in  the  sap  current  to  the  cowpea  or  clover  plant 
on  which  it  is  growing.  A  part  of  it  is  deposited  in  the 
roots  of  the  cowpea,  another  part  in  the  stem,  another 
portion  goes  to  make  the  leaves,  and  still  another  part 
helps  to  make  the  seeds.  All  clovers  and  most  other 
legumes  use  their  fertilizer  nitrogen  manufactured  in  the 
tubercles  just  as  the  cowpea  does,  and  they  enrich  the 
soil  in  the  same  way. 

Even  if  the  farmer  mows  and  hauls  away  the  vines  for 


HOW   TREES   AND   PLANTS   IMPROVE   THE   LAND      91 

hay,  there  is  still  left  in  the  land  the  nitrogen  that  was 
stored  in  the  roots  and  lower  part  of  the  stem  and  in  the 
fallen  leaves.  Even  the  roots  and  stubble  of  legumes, 
therefore,  can  enrich  the  land,  both  in  nitrogen  and  in 
vegetable  matter.     The  enrichment  is  much  greater  if  the 


Fig.   58.  —  A  Field  of  Velvet  Beans,  one  of  the  Best  Soil-improving 

Plants 

tops,  as  well  as  the  roots,  are  plowed  into  the  soil,  either 
as  soon  as  growth  is  finished  or  after  being  eaten  by- 
animals  pasturing  on  the  field. 

Shall  the  tops  of  soil-improving  plants  be  plowed  into 
the  ground?  —  The  plants  that  most  enrich  the  land  are 
those  that  make  the  richest  hay  and  pasturage  for  horses, 
cattle,  sheep,  hogs,  and  poultry.  The  farmer  often  asks, 
"  Does  it  pay  better  to  use  the  vines  or  tops  of  cowpeas 
or  clover  as  food  for  live-stock  or  to  plow  them  into  the 


92 


AGRICULTURE 


ground  as  fertilizer?"  The  best  answer  is  that  letting 
these  crops  pass  through  an  animal  does  not  greatly  lessen 
their  value  as  fertilizer.  The  starch,  sugar,  and  fat  that  the 
animal  takes  out  of  its  food  have  no  value  as  a  fertilizer. 
Enough  live-stock  ought  to  be  kept  on  all  farms  to  con- 
sume the  legumes  that  are  grown.  The  farmer  can,  there- 
fore, make  a  double  use  of  the  leguminous  crops :  he  can 
use  them  as  stock-food,  and  later  for  fertilizer.  The  roots 
and  stubble  of  legumes  enrich  the  land.  The  little  fertilizer 
factories  on  the  roots  of  leguminous  plants  are  worth  more 
to  mankind  than  all  the  gold  in  the  whole  world.  Nearly 
every  farm  that  to-day  is  too  poor  to  keep  the  farmer's 
family  in  comfort  can  be  made  fertile  by  the  wise  use  of 
cowpeas,  crimson  clover,  and  related  legumes. 

Exercise.  —  Make  a  mud  ball  of  stiff,  poor  clay  and  put  it  away  to 
dry.  Make  another  of  half  clay  and  half  dark,  fine  woods'  earth.  Let 
it  dr}'.  Try  to  make  a  firm  mud  ball  of  dark  woods'  earth  alone. 
After  drying,  which  of  the  first  two  crumbles  most  easily  ?  Why  ? 
Find  all  the  plants  that  you  think  may  be  legumes.  Learn  all  you  can 
about  the  leaves,  flowers,  pods,  and  about  the  size  and  shape  of  the 
fertilizer  factories  on  their  roots.  How  many  stamens  in  a  pea  or 
cowpea  bloom?     Are  all  of  them  partly  grown  together? 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  Objects  needed:  (i)  soils  of  different 
colors,  due  to  different  amounts  of  vegetable  matter  ;  (2)  seed,  flowers, 
plants,  or  roots  of  any  legume,  as  garden  pea,  cowjjea  (Southern  field 
pea),  sweet-pea,  clover,  etc. 


Fic.  59.  —  Pods  or  a  Lecckinoos  Plant 


SECTION   XVI.     BARNYARD    MANURE 

A  FARM  with  many  animals  is  generally  rich  and  produc- 
tive because  of  the  supply  of  manure.  Experience  in  all 
countries  shows  that  this  material  is  an  excellent  means 
for  enriching  all  kinds  of  soil.  Some  chemical  fertilizers, 
however,  are  beneficial  only  on  certain  soils. 

Manure  has  these  good  effects  :  (i)  It  makes  the  earth 
loose  and  mellow,  allowing  the  roots  and  air  to  come  into 
contact  with  all  parts  of  the  soil.  (2)  After  it  has  rotted, 
it  enables  the  soil  to  hold  moisture  in  dry  weather.  (3)  It 
furnishes  plant-food  to  the  roots  of  growing  crops.  (4)  It 
adds  needed  germs  and  causes  the  beneficial  ones  already 
in  the  soil  to  thrive  and  multiply,  thus  helping  the  crop. 

Richest  manure  from  richest  food.  —  Barnyard  manure 
is  composed  largely  of  ground-up  parts  of  plants,  and  con- 
tains very  nearly  what  the  plants  contained.  The  richest 
is  made  by  feeding  cotton-seed  meal  and  other  foods  rich 
in  nitrogen.  Hay  from  cowpeas  and  other  legumes  makes 
better  manure  than  that  from  shucks,  straw,  or  grass. 

Fertilizing  crops  by  buying  food  for  live-stock. —  A 
farmer  may  buy  100  pounds  of  cotton-seed  meal  and  place 
it  in  the  ground  as  fertilizer.  It  would  pay  him  better  first 
to  feed  it  to  cattle  and  then  to  use  the  manure.  If  all  of 
this,  solid  and  liquid,  were  carefully  saved,  it  would  have 
the  same  value  as  a  fertilizer  as  80  pounds  of  cotton-seed 

93 


94 


AGRICULTURE 


meal.  Animals  take  from  the  food  fed  them  chiefly  those 
substances  that  arc  worthless  as  fertilizers,  such  as  starch 
and  fat.  The  farmer,  therefore,  who  buys  cotton-seed  meal 
to  use  as  a  fertilizer  for  his  crop  can  make  two  profits  by 
first  feeding  it  and  then    using   the  manure  as  fertilizer. 

Any  pasture  or  field  can  be 
made  rich  by  keeping  on  it 
live-stock  that  is  fed  partly  on 
purchased  food  or  food  grown 
on  other  parts  of  the  farm. 
The  manure  from  different 
animals  is  different  in  fertiliz- 
ing value  largely  because 
they  are  fed  on  different 
foods.  Manure  from  the 
poultry  house  is  several  times 
more  valuable  than  any  other. 
When  only  the  solid  waste 
from  animals  is  saved,  the 
farmer  gets  only  about  half 
the   fertilizer  available.      If 

andsecond.howmostofitsValoe    the  manure  pile  has  no  roof 

IS  Retained 

over  it,  the  rain  water  de- 
stroys much  of  the  fertilizing  value.  Manure  that  has  been 
exposed  to  rain  for  a  number  of  months  is  sometimes  worth 
less  than  half  as  much  for  fertilizing  crops  as  it  was  at 
first.  Most  of  the  plant-food  has  been  dissolved  and 
carried  off  by  water ;  some  of  the  nitrogen  has  changed 
into  ammonia  and  passed  off  into  the  air  as  a  strong-smell- 
ing  gas ;    and  a  large  part  of  the  soil-loosening  material 


Fig.  6o.  —  Showing  first  how  most 
OF  THE  Value  of  Manure  is  Lost, 


BARNYARD   MANURE  95 

has  disappeared  or  been  slowly  "  burned,"  for  rotting  is  a 
kind  of  slow  burning.  A  roof  over  the  manure  pile  pre- 
vents the  great  loss  caused  by  water,  but  the  other  losses 
go  on  even  with  the  roof.  The  best  plan,  therefore,  is  to 
put  manure  into  the  ground  as  soon  as  possible  and  before 
any  waste  has  occurred. 

Composts.  —  Compost  heaps  are  piles  of  manure  mixed 
with  other  materials,  such  as  leaves  or  cotton  seed,  with 
sometimes  phosphate  added.  Partial  rotting  makes  the 
manure  less  coarse  and  makes  it  act  more  quickly  on  the 
crop.  The  same  materials  can  be  mixed  in  the  furrow  in 
the  field.  When  they  rot  there,  the  soil  prevents  loss. 
Moreover,  when  organic  matter  rots  in  the  soil,  it  causes 
the  soil  touching  it  to  "rot"  too,  that  is,  to  change  some 
of  its  compounds  into  substances  that  plants  can  use  as 
food.  It  is  generally  best  to  plow  manure  under  so  that 
the  soil  will  absorb  the  ammonia  that  might  otherwise  be 
lost. 

Barnyard  manure  is  dilute.  The  farmer  must  get  it  to 
the  field  with  as  little  labor  as  possible,  for  fully  three  fourths 
of  its  weight  is  water,  that  has  no  value.  Large  amounts 
must  be  used  on  an  acre.  In  a  ton  of  manure  there  are 
only  about  25  to  35  pounds  of  the  three  precious  forms  of 
plant-food  (nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash),  or  about 
as  much  as  in  200  pounds  of  a  high-grade  complete  com- 
mercial fertilizer.  The  plant-food  in  a -ton  of  manure  could 
generally  be  bought  in  the  form  of  commercial  fertilizers 
for  between  1^1.50  and  $$.  But  a  ton  of  manure  contains, 
besides  direct  plant-food,  billions  of  helpful  germs  and 
about  a  quarter  of  a  ton   of   organic  matter  that  is  very 


96 


AGRICULTURE 


beneficial  in  making  the  soil  mellow  and  able  to  hold  mois- 
ture. These  cannot  be  bought  in  commercial  fertilizers, 
which  increase  the  crops  chiefly  in  the  year  in  which  they 
are  used.  Stable  manure  makes  the  soil  richer  for  a 
number  of  years. 


Fio.  6i.  —  Good  Tolace,  making  Good  Fektilizing  Profitable 
Note,  on  the  left,  that  the  peach  trees  are  set  on  contours  or  terraces. 


SECTION   XVII.     COMMERCIAL   FERTILIZERS 


Soils  have  abundance  of  all  necessary  plant-food 
materials  except  nitrogen,  phosphates,  potash,  and  lime, 
which  may  be  deficient  in  some  lands.  When  one  or 
more  of  these  valuable  forms  of  plant-food  is  deficient, 
poor  crops  result  unless 
something  containing  the 
element  wanted  is  added. 

The  lack  of  even  a 
single  one  of  these  pre- 
cious substances,  or 
forms  of  plant-food,  will 
cause    the    crop    to    be 

about    as    poor    as    if    all    Fig.  62.  — Grass  Hav  from  equal  Arkas 

four  of  them  were  de- 
ficient. It  is  important 
to  find  out  which  of  these  is  wanting,  and  to  use  on  each 
field  a  fertilizer  that  contains  just  the  kind  of  plant-food 
that  is  needed  in  that  soil.  Plants,  if  denied  nitrogen  or 
phosphates,  but  given  an  abundance  of  everything  else 
needed,  would  die. 

Nitrogen  and  ammonia.  —  Commercial  fertilizers  (so 
named  from  the  word  commerce,  meaning  trade)  are  those 
prepared  and  furnished  by  merchants  or  manufacturers. 
When  they  contain  only  nitrogen,  they  are  called  nitroge- 

H  97 


On  left,  unfertilized;  on  right,  fertilized  with 
nitrogen  and  potash. 


/7-*»#  -  AfinoAf/A. 


98  AGRICULTURE 

nous  fertilizers.  The  most  important  commercial  ferti- 
lizers that  arc  rich  in  nitrogen  arc  cotton-seed  meal  and 
nitrate  of  soda.  If  nitrogen  occurs  in  mixtures  with  other 
precious  plant-foods,  the  fertilizer  may  be  called  an  am- 
moniated  fertilizer,  or  "guano."  Ammonia  is  a  combination 
of  fourteen  parts  by  weight  of  nitrogen  with  three  parts 
of  hydrogen  (Fig.  63).  Fourteen  pounds  of  nitrogen, 
the  most  precious  of  plant-foods,  may  become  seventeen 
pounds  of  ammonia.     Hence,  if  there  is  printed  on  a  bag 

of  fertilizer  the  state- 
ment that  it  contains 
two  per  cent  of  nitro- 
gen, you  can  calculate 
how    much    ammonia 

Fxc.  63.  — Showing  THE  Weight  OF  Ammonia    this    equals,    multiply- 

EQUIVALENT  TO   I4  PotJNDS  OF  NiTKOCEN  .  ,  . 

mg  the  amount  of 
nitrogen  by  17  and  dividing  the  product  by  14.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  the  printing  on  the  bag  shows  that  cotton- 
seed meal  contains  eight  and  one-half  per  cent  of  ammonia, 
change  this  to  nitrogen  by  dividing  by  17  and  multiplying 
by  14.  The  amount  of  ammonia  is  always  larger,  because 
it  contains  all  the  nitrogen  and  another  element  besides. 

Cotton-seed  meal.  —  Cotton-seed  meal  is  a  yellowish, 
powdery  material  made  from  the  kernels  of  cotton  seed 
after  removing  most  of  the  oil  and  hulls.  Cotton-seed  meal 
is  more  than  twice  as  rich  in  nitrogen  as  the  whole  cotton 
seed  from  which  it  is  made. 

Cotton-seed  meal  usually  contains  between  six  and  seven 
pounds  of  nitrogen  in  each  hundred  pounds  of  meal  and 
is  therefore  expensive.     It  also  contains  some  phosphate 


COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZERS 


99 


and  potash.  There  are  several  grades  of  this  meal,  those 
that  contain  the  largest  proportion  of  hulls  being  the  least 
valuable.  This  meal  cannot  be  used  by  plants  until  it  has 
decayed.  It  is  more  suitable,  therefore,  for  crops  that 
occupy  the  land  in  the  warm  weather  than  for  very  early 
crops  which  make  their  growth  in  cool  weather. 

Nitrate  of  soda.  —  Nitrate  of  soda  is  a  fertilizer  with 
more  than  twice  as  much  nitrogen  as  cotton-seed  meal. 
It  costs  more  than  twice  as 
much  per  ton,  but  does  not 
need  to  be  used  in  such  large 
amounts.  It  is  brought  by 
ships  from  South  America, 
for  in  that  hot  country  the 
nitrogen  has  already  been 
changed  into  the  form  of 
a  nitrate,  ready  to  be  used 
by  plants  at  once. 

When  nitrate  of  soda  is 
sown  broadcast  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  where 
young  wheat  or  oat  plants 
are  growing,  the  moisture  of 
the  soil  dissolves  the  ferti- 
lizer and  carries  it  down- 
ward to  the  roots  of  plants. 
Within  a  week  after  this  fertilizer  is  sown,  wheat  and  oat 
plants  become  much  greener  and  more  luxuriant.  It  is 
especially  suitable  for  plants  that  make  their  growth 
during  the  cool  months  (wheat,  oats,  etc.)  and  for  vege- 


Fig.  64.  —  Corn  from  Equal  Areas 
On  right,  no  nitrogen  in  fertilizer;  on 
left,  fertilized  with  240  pounds  of 
nitrate  of  soda  per  acre.  Yield  per 
acre  without  nitrogen,  3.2  tons;  with 
nitrate  of  soda,  6.7  tons. 


100  AGRICULTURE 

tables,  like  lettuce  and  radishes,  in  which  quick  growth  is 
desired. 

Three  kinds  of  phosphates.  —  Phosphates  are  those  fer- 
tilizers that  contain  the  element  phosphorus,  in  the  form 
of  phosphoric  acid.  There  arc  three  kinds  of  phosphate, 
that  are  of  very  different  value.  The  first  is  natural  or 
raiv  phosphate,  sometimes  called  Tennessee  phosphate, 
Florida  phosphate,  or  floats.  It  is  simply  the  phosphate 
rock  just  as  it  is  dug  or  brought  up  by  dredges  from  its 
place  in  phosphate  beds,  except  that  it  has  been  ground 
into  a  very  fine  powder.  Since  roots  generally  cannot 
absorb  much  of  this  form  of  phosphate  because  it  will  not 
dissolve  in  pure  water,  it  is  called  insoluble  phosphate. 

Acid  phosphate  is  so  called  because  it  is  made  by  ad- 
ding sulfuric  acid  to  the  raw  or  natural  phosphate.  This 
acid  so  changes  the  phosphate  that  roots  can  immediately 
absorb  it.  The  phosphate  in  acid  phosphate  is  called 
soluble.  There  is  a  third  or  intermediate  form  that  plants 
can  use.  This  and  the  soluble  phosphate  are  added  to- 
gether and  called  the  available  phosphoric,  that  is,  the  kind 
that  plants  can  use  promptly. 

Acid  phosphate  usually  contains  from  12  to  16  per 
cent  of  available  phosphoric  acid,  that  is  from  24  to  32 
pounds  of  available  phosphoric  acid  in  every  200-pound 
bag.  The  farmer  can  afford  to  pay  fully  one  third  more 
for  the  acid  phosphate  with  16  per  cent  than  for  that  with 
only  12  per  cent  of  available  plant-food.  He  will  need 
less  of  the  high-grade  than  of  the  low-grade  fertilizer,  and 
thus  will  save  freight  and  expense  of  hauling  and  handling. 

Although  raw  or  crude  phosphate  cannot  be  dissolved 


COMMERCIAL   FERTILIZERS  lOI 

in  pure  water  and  cannot  be  used  immediately  by  the  roots, 
nevertheless  it  has  some  value  as  fertilizer  for  some  soils 
and  crops.  When  ravv  phosphate  is  kept  for  some  time 
in  contact  with  decaying  vegetable  matter  or  mixed  with 
manure,  a  part  of  its  phosphate  changes  into  a  form  which 
roots  can  use. 

Fertilizers  containing  potash. -;- The  commonest  of  these 
is  kainit.  It  is  dug  from  deep  mines  in  Germany.  It 
contains  about  twelve  per  cent  of  potash.  Muriate  of  pot- 
ash is  obtained  from  the  same  source.  About  half  its 
weight,  or  fifty  per  cent,  is  potash.  Kainit  and  muriate  of 
potash  are  nearly  white,  resembUng  somewhat  coarse 
table  salt. 

Exercise.  — Try  to  get  samples  of  as  many  as  possible  of  the  fer- 
tilizers mentioned  above  for  the  teacher  to  show  during  class.  In  your 
notebook  describe  them.  Be  ready  to  report  the  effects  of  any  fertilizer 
test  you  may  know  about. 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  If  possible,  exhibit  small  samples  of  any 
of  the  fertilizers  mentioned  in  the  lesson.  Which  ones  dissolve  quickly  ? 
Which  ones  get  lumpy?  Exhibition  of  ordinary  mixed  or  manufactured 
fertilizers  will  be  of  doubtful  profit  to  the  class,  and  may  involve  per- 
sonal interests. 

.....wiaiiiKKT-.... 


Fig.  65.  —  A  Window  Plant  well  treated 
AS  TO  Light  and  Food 


SECTION  XVIII.     CALCULATING   FERTILIZER 
FORMULAS 

Fertilizers  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  chemicals. 
Those  made  by  mixing  any  two  such  chemicals  are  called 
mixed,  manufactured,  or  manipulated  fertilizers.  The  laws 
of  most  states  require  that  there  shall  be  printed  on  the  out- 
side of  each  bag  of  fertilizer  a  statement  showing  the  per- 
centage of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  it  contains. 
No  fertilizer  should  be  bought  until  the  buyer  has  calcu- 
lated its  commercial  value  from  these  figures  on  the  bag, 
using  the  method  shown  on  page  103.  After  he  has 
calculated  the  commercial  value,  he  should  compare  this 
figure  with  the  cash  price  asked  by  the  seller.  The  two 
figures  should  differ  by  only  enough  to  pay  the  dealer  a 
fair  profit  and  the  cost  of  freight. 

The  commercial  value  of  a  pound  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric 
acid,  and  potash  is  the  average  wholesale  selling  price  of 
these  substances  in  the  largest  fertilizer  markets.  Chemists 
average  these  prices  every  year,  and  publish  the  figures  as 
the  commercial  values  for  that  year.  Generally  the  com- 
mercial value  is  about  15  cents  per  pound  of  nitrogen,  5 
cents  per  pound  of  available  phosphoric  acid,  and  5  cents 
per  pound  of  potash. 

How  to  calculate  the  commercial  value.  —  Multiply  the 
prices  given  above  by  the  number  of  pounds  of  nitrogen, 
available  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  respectively  in  a  ton 


READY-MIXED   FERTILIZER  I03 

of  the  fertilizer.     Add  the  products ;  the  sum  is  the  com- 
mercial value  of  the  fertilizer. 

Example.  —  What  is  the  commercial  value  of  one  ton  of  complete 
fertilizer  which  the  printing  on  the  bags  guarantees  to  contain  1.65  per 
cent  of  nitrogen,  10  per  cent  of  available  phosphoric  acid,  and  2  per  cent 
of  potash  ? 

Plant-food       Lbs.     Cents       Commercial 
in  one  ton  value 

Nitrogen  i  .65  %  x  2000  lbs.  =       33  lbs.        33x15=      $  4.95 

Available  phos- 
phoric acid       10%  X  2000  lbs.  =      200  lbs.      200  X    5=         10.00 
Potash  2%  X  2000  lbs.  =       40  lbs.        40  x    5=  2.00 

$16.95 

The  above  calculation  shows  a  commercial  value  of  $16.95  when 
nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  have  the  prices  of  15,  5,  and  5 
cents  a  pound  respectively.^ 

If  the  cash  price  asked  by  the  dealer  is  many  dollars  per 
ton  above  the  estimated  commercial  value  for  that  year, 
a  calculation  should  be  made  to  learn  what  it  would  cost 
for  the  farmer  to  make  his  own  fertilizer  by  mixing  together 
acid  phosphate,  cotton-seed  meal,  and  kainit,  or  other 
chemicals. 

Example.  — What  will  it  cost  to  make  a  home-mixed  fertilizer,  having 
the  same  composition  as  the  fertilizer  given  in  the  table,  with  cotton-seed 
meal  at  $22  per  ton,  acid  phosphate  (with  16  per  cent  available  phos- 
phoric acid)  at  $15  per  ton,  and  kainit  at  $14  per  ton?  The  price 
asked  for  the  ready-mixed  fertilizer  is  $21  per  ton.  How  much  meal, 
phosphate,  and  kainit  must  be  mixed  in  order  to  obtain  an  equivalent, 
but  less  expensive,  fertilizer? 

1  These  figures  will  answer  for  practice.  To  get  the  exact  prices  of  nitro- 
gen, phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  for  any  particular  year,  write  to  the  State 
Commissioner  of  Agriculture  at  the  state  capital. 


104  AGRICULTURE 

In  one  ton  Plant-food  needed 

Nitrogen  1.65  lbs.  per  cwt.  x  20  cwt.  =  33  lbs. 
Available  phos- 
phoric acid  10  lbs.  per  cwt.  x  20  cwt.  =  200  lbs. 
Potash  2  lbs.  per  cwt.  x  20  cwt.  s  40  lbs. 

First  find  how  much  cotton-seed  meal  is  needed  to  aflford  33  pounds 
of  nitrogen.  The  table  on  page  106  gives  the  per  cent  of  nitrogen  in 
cotton-seed  meal  as  6^ ;  this  means  that  each  hundredweight  of  meal 
contains  6i  lb.  of  nitrogen.  Evidently  to  supply  33  lb.  of  nitrogen,  as 
many  hundredweight  of  meal  are  needed  as  6}  is  contained  times  in  33. 
Thus  33  -^  6i  =  5.07  cwt.,  or  507  lbs.,  of  cotton-seed  meal  are  needed. 

Next  find  how  much  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  this  amount  of  meal 
will  supply.  From  the  tables  below  it  is  seen  that  i  cwt.  of  cotton-seed 
meal  contains  2.8  lbs.  of  phosphoric  acid  ;  therefore,  5.07  cwt.  contain 
(5.07  X  2.8)  14.196  lbs.  Likewise  for  potash,  5.07  cwt  cotton-seed 
meal  contain  5.07  x  1.8  =  10.126  lbs.  of  potash. 

Lbs.  phosphoric  acid  needed  200 

Less  lbs.  phosphoric  acid  supplied  in  507  lbs.  c.-s.  meal  14.2 

Lbs.  phosphoric  acid  to  be  supplied  in  phosphate  185.8 

How  many  pounds  of  phosphate  containing  16%  of  available  phos- 
phoric acid  are  needed  to  furnish  185.8  lbs.  of  phosphoric  acid?  Evi- 
dently as  many  hundred  as  16  is  contained  times  in  185.8.  Thus, 
185.8  -T-  16  =  11.61  cwt.,  or  1161  lbs.  of  acid  phosphate  are  required. 

Calculate  how  many  pounds  of  kainit  to  use. 

Lbs.  potash  needed  40 

Less  lbs.  potash  in  507  lbs.  c.-s.  meal  IO.a 

Lbs.  potash  to  be  supplied  in  kainit  39.8 

To  furnish  29.8  lbs.  of  kainit  requires  as  many  hundredweight  of 
kainit  as  12  (the  number  of  pounds  of  potash  which  the  table  shows  is 
contained  in  1  cwt.of  kainit)  is  contained  times  in  29.8.  Thus  29.8 -t- 12  = 
2.46  cwt.,  or  246  lbs.  of  kainit  are  needed. 

Combining  these  three  results : 

507  lbs.  cotton-seed  meal           ]               rnitrogen  33 

1161  lbs.  acid  phosphate  (16%)  [contain |av.  phos.  add  200 

246  lbs.  kainit                            J               [potash  40 


READY-MIXED  FERTILIZER 


I(>5 


Cost. 

507  lbs.  cotton-seed  meal  at  $  22.00  per  ton  =  $5-58 

1 161  lbs.  acid  phosphate     at  $  15.00  per  ton  =  8.75 

246  lbs.  kainit                    at  $  14.00  per  ton  =  1.72 

1914  lbs.  mixture  $16.05 

Price  asked  for  one  ton  of  manufactured  fertilizer  $21.00 

Cost  of  home  mixture  affording  same  amounts  of  plant-food        16.05 
Saved  in  cash  by  home-mixing  $  4-95 

A  slight  reduction  in  the  amount  saved  must  be  made  for  the  labor 
used. 

Advantage  of  home-mixing.  —  By  mixing  his  fertilizers 
the  farmer  can  usually  save  several  dollars  per  ton.     He 


Fig.  66.  —  On  left,  Cotton   Unfertilized:    on  right,  Cotton  supplied 
WITH  A  Complete  Home-mixed  Fertilizer 

can  also  make  a  variety  of  mixtures,  adapted  to  each  crop 
and  to  each  field. 


io6 


AGRICULTURE 


Fillers  in  fertilizers.  —  A  full  ton  of  the  mixture  is  not 
always  needed  to  afford  the  desired  amount  of  plant- food. 
If  a  full  ton  having  the  given  percentage  composition  is 
wanted,  add  the  necessary  amount  of  some  worthless  mate- 
rial, such  as  ground  stone  or  cinders.  Such  worthless  addi- 
tions to  fertilizers  are  called  fillers.  If  manufacturers  add 
them  it  is  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  fertilizer  that  they 
can  afford  to  sell  at  a  low  price.  To  avoid  buying  and 
hauling  useless  filler,  use  only  the  highest  grades  of  manu- 
factured fertilizers.  These  are  higher  in  price,  but  gener- 
ally furnish  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  at  a 
lower  cost  per  pound  than  do  low-grade,  cheap  fertilizers. 
In  choosing  fertilizers,  select  that  one  in  which  a  pound  of 
plant-food  costs  the  least. 

COMPOSITION   OF  FERTILIZERS 


Available 

loo  Pounds  contain 

NlTKOGBM 

Phosphomc 
Acio 

Potash 

Lbs. 

Va%. 

Lbs. 

Cotton-seed  meal  .... 

6.5 

2.8 

1.8 

Nitrate  of  soda      .... 

15.0 

0.0 

0.0 

Acid  phosphate  (i6%)  . 

0.0 

16.0 

0.0 

Acid  phosphate  (14%)  . 

0.0 

14.0 

0.0 

Kainit 

0.0 

0.0 

12.0 

Muriate  of  potash  .... 

0.0 

0.0 

50.0 

Cotton  seed  .         .   '     . 

3' 

1-3 

1.3 

Exercise.  —  Copy  in  your  notebook  the  two  examples  given  in  this 
section  and  understand  them  so  that  you  can  work  similar  examples 
on  the  blackboard,  or  for  some  farmer. 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  If  the  sixth  grade  studies  agriculture,  this 
section  may  be  omitted.  It  should  be  required,  together  wiih  the  ad- 
ditional problems,  when  the  class  in  agriculture  consists  of  the  seventh 


READY-MIXED   FERTILIZER 


107 


or  some  higher  grade.  It  is  suggested  that  several  problems  like  the 
preceding  be  worked  in  class,  either  by  dwelling  long  enough  on  this 
lesson,  or  by  substituting  this  class  of  problems  for  the  usual  lesson  in 
arithmetic. 

Additional  Problems  :  — 

(i)  What  is  the  commercial  value  of  a  ton  of  complete  fertilizer  con- 
taining 8  %  available  phosphoric  acid,  3  %  nitrogen,  and  3  %  potash  ? 

(2)  How  much  nitrate  of  soda,  kainit,  and  x6%  phosphate  contain 
the  same  amounts  and  kinds  of  plant-food  as  the  ton  of  the  fertilizer 
just  mentioned? 

(3)  What  would  this  mixture  cost  with  acid  phosphate  at  $15, 
nitrate  of  soda  at  $55,  and  kainit  at  $14  per  ton? 

(4)  How  much  16  7„  phosphate,  cotton-seed  meal,  and  muriate  of 
potash  would  afford  the  same  number  of  pounds  of  each  plant-food  as 
one  ton  of  the  fertilizer  mentioned  in  first  problem  ? 

(5)  Which  should  a  farmer  buy,  muriate  of  potash  at  $55  per 
ton,  or  kainit  at  $14?     What  would  a  pound  of  potash  cost  in  each? 

(6)  Which  should  a  farmer  buy,  acid  phosphate  containing  i67o 
available  phosphoric  acid,  costing  $14  per  ton,  or  a  lower  grade  con- 
taining 12 7o?  costing  $12  per  ton?  What  does  a  pound  of  available 
phosphoric  acid  in  each  cqst? 


Fig.  67.  —  Nodules  on  a  Legume,  aiding  thb 
Farmer  to  secure  Nitrogen 


SECTION   XIX.     SUITING  THE  FERTILIZERS 
TO  THE  SOIL 

The  amount  of  fertilizer  per  acre  varies  with  the  land 
and  with  the  crop.  Vegetables  and  cotton  generally  pay 
better  for  large  amounts  of  fertilizer  than  does  corn.  For 
cotton,  many  farmers  use  only  200  pounds  per  acre.  Good 
farmers  often  use  400  to  600  pounds.  Growers  of  vege- 
tables increase  this  to  as  much  as  one  half  or  one  ton 
of  commercial  fertilizer  per  acre.  As  labor  and  land 
become  scarcer  or  higher  it  pays  to  increase  the  amount 
of  fertilizer.  Some  land  may  be  too  poor  for  very 
large  amounts  of  fertilizer  to  be  very  profitable.  This  is 
because  a  poor  soil  may  be  so  shallow  or  sq  deficient 
in  vegetable  matter  that  in  dry  weather  it  can  hold  just 
enough  water  to  make  good  use  of  only  300  pounds  of 
fertilizer  per  acre.  When  this  same  soil  is  made  deeper 
and  supplied  with  vegetable  matter,  it  may  hold  enough 
moisture  to  use  profitably  double  this  amount. 

Experienced  farmers  often  apply  more  phosphate  than 
the  crop  will  remove  from  the  land  because  the  clay  or 
iron  in  the  soil  changes  some  of  it  into  a  form  that  plants 
cannot  use.  This  cannot  be  prevented  and  fortunately 
phosphate  is  not  very  expensive.  Nitrogen,  however,  is 
about  three  times  as  expensive  as  phosphoric  acid,  hence 

108 


SUITING  THE   FERTILIZERS   TO   THE    SOIL 


109 


more  of  this  than  the  plant  requires  is  not  applied.  For 
fields  where  soil-improving  crops  have  grown  and  on  stock- 
farms,  often  there  is  no 
need  to  buy  any  nitrogen, 
or  very  little  at  the  most. 

The  agricultural  value  of 
a  fertilizer. — The  agricul- 
tural value  of  a  fertilizer  is 
the  value  of  the  increase 
in  the  crop  caused  by  using 
the  fertilizer. 

Suiting  the  fertilizer  to 
the  crop. —  Different  plants 
require  different  kinds  of 
fertilizer.  Since  legumi- 
nous plants  get  nitrogen 
from  the  air  by  the  work 
of  their  root  tubercles  they 
generally  do  not  need  nitro- 
gen. To  add  a  fertilizer 
containing  nitrogen  is 
therefore  a  useless  expense. 

Suiting  the  fertilizer  to 
the  soil. — What  a  soil 
needs  cannot  be  told  by 
looking  at  it.  There  are, 
however,  some  helpful 
rules.  Generally,  a  soil  that  is  black  or  very  dark  con- 
tains much  vegetable  matter,  which  in  turn  contains  much 
nitrogen.     On  the  other  hand,  if  the  stalks  of  crops  cul- 


1  ii 

.  M 

M, 

1^ 

]l  Ji        \ 

w 

w 

K 

Fig.  68. — Sorghum  from  Equal  Areas 

On  left,  no  nitrogen  in  the  fertilizer;  on 
right,  fertilized  with  nitrate  of  soda. 


no 


AGRICULTURE 


tivated  on  a  field  are  small,  there  is  probably  need 
of  nitrogen  in  the  soil.  A  crop  of  cowpeas  or  clover 
usually  leaves  the  soil  rich  in  nitrogen.  Clay  soils  gener- 
ally contain  more  potash  than  sandy  soils.  Whether  a 
soil  is  rich  in  phosphoric  acid  cannot  be  told  by  looking 
at  it. 

How  to  find  what  fertilizer  the  soil  needs.  —  Even  when 
a  chemist  analyzes  soil  and  finds  out  just  what  it  contains, 


I 

I'lG.  Oy.  —  WHfcAT    muM    Lk^UAL  AktAS 

On  left,  fertilized  with  nitrate  of  soda ;  on  right,  no  nitrogen  in  the  fertilizer. 

he  cannot  tell  how  much  of  every  precious  element  is  in  a 
condition  for  plants  to  use.  The  chemist's  analysis  does 
not,  therefore,  show  what  fertilizer  to  apply. 

The  only  way  to  determine  the  kind  of  fertilizer  a  soil 
needs  is  to  make  an  experiment  on  that  soil  with  different 
fertilizers. 

It  will  pay  to  make  this  experiment  with  the  principal 
crop  of  any  farm.  The  following  diagram  shows  how  to 
make  such  a  test.     The  areas  must  be  of  exactly  the  same 


SUITING   THE   FERTILIZERS   TO   THE   SOIL        in 

size,  for  example,  one  eighth  of  an  acre.  The  figures  in 
the  table  show  the  number  of  pounds  of  fertilizer  for  one 
acre : 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

Si 

CJ 

rt 

H       rt 

V 

rt 

73 

^3 

rt      "O 

(4 

-o 

a, 

O 
in 

O 
en 

t    1 

"o, 

g 

<n 

u^ 

Vm 

OT        "*-' 

efl 

<4-l 

O 

O 

O 

o     o 

O 

o 

■5 

4> 

V 

J3        <u 

J3 

(L> 

Cu 

a.    -S 

a, 

'S 

IH 

2 

1  ^ 

Ih 

.-2     S 

12 

2 

'2 

'rt 

*G 

-ti 

c3    -^ 

S 

o       -^ 

"o 

.ti 

rt 

^ 

rt 

a 

2     a 

N 

rt      a 

rt    • 

a 

^ 

en 

in 

o5 

u5      u5 

^ 
^ 

c/i       ui 

u5 

tn 

tn 

XI 

^ 

^ 

x     jn 

J3      -Q 

£ 

X> 

J3 

^-« 

^^         ^i 

•—1            ^^ 

^^ 

•— • 

8 

8 

8 

8    8 

o 

8    8 

8 

8 

8 

N 

N 

N         >-i 

N        !-• 

N 

M 

The  plots  must  be  on  the  same  kind  of  soil  and  equally 
well  drained.  If  it  is  not  convenient  to  harvest  the  crop 
separately  on  so  many  plots,  use  only  plots  i,  2,  3,  4,  and  5. 

Fertilizers  that  do  not  work  well  together. — Two  ferti- 
lizers that  must  not  be  mixed  are  lime  and  phosphate. 
The  lime  changes  the  phosphate  into  a  less  soluble  form 
and  thus  reduces  its  value  as  a  fertilizer.  Now,  ashes 
contain  much  lime ;  therefore  ashes  and  phosphate  should 
not  be  used  together. 

Exercise.  —  Learn  from  a  farmer  in  the  neighborhood,  or  from  the 
printing  on  fertilizer  sacks,  the  composition  of  the  fertilizer  most  used  in 
your  neighborhood.  Is  it  used  on  all  sorts  of  soils?  If  it  suits  poor 
clay  soils,  is  it  apt  to  be  the  best  for  sandy  land?  By  making  the 
fertilizer  experiment  described  in  this  Section,  you  may  be  able  to  inr 
crease  greatly  the  profits  of  some  farm  the  next  year. 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  The  calculation  of  the  commercial  values 
of  fertilizers  and  practice  in  calculating  fertilizer  formulas  of  definite 
composition  should  be  continued. 


SECTION    XX.    LIME 

Chalk  is  one  form  of  lime.  Another  form  is  quicklime, 
which  consists  of  large  lumps,  from  which  bricklayers 
make  their  mortar.  If  a  bricklayer  pours  only  a  small 
amount  of  water  on  a  lump  of  quicklime,  the  lump  absorbs 
the  water  and  falls  into  a  powder.  This  lime  that  has 
been  slacked  or  changed  into  a  powder  by  water  is  the 
fofm  generally  used  when  the  farmer  employs  lime  as  a 
fertilizer.  He  buys  the  quicklime  and  lets  it  slack  or 
absorb  water  after  it  reaches  the  farm. 

Lime  overcomes  sourness  of  soils. — All  of  these  forms 
of  lime  are  alkaline,  that  is,  the  opposite  of  acid.  Quick- 
lime is  more  alkaline  than  the  other  kinds  of  lime  and 
fresh-slacked  lime  ranks  next.  If  either  of  these  forms  of 
lime  is  placed  in  contact  with  an  acid,  the  lime  unites  with 
the  acid  and  by  forming  a  substance  different  from  either, 
that  is,  neither  alkaline  nor  acid,  it  destroys  the  acidity.  If, 
therefore,  lime  is  put  on  sour  soil,  it  unites  with  the  acids 
that  made  the  soil  sour,  changing  them  into  harmless 
substances. 

How  to  know  that  a  soil  is  sour.  —  A  doctor  cannot  well 
cure  sickness  until  he  determines  the  nature  of  the  disease. 
When  he  has  done  this,  he  knows  what  medicines  to  give. 
Likewise  it  is  important  for  the  farmer  to  know  the  condi- 
tion of  his  soil.  If  sourness  is  the  principal  trouble,  lime 
will  aid  some  crops  to  grow  much  better  on  this  soil     To 


LIME 


113 


test  soil  for  sourness  or  acidity  strips  of  blue  litmus  paper 
are  used  (purchase  at  drug  store).  Acid  turns  the  paper 
pink  or  red.  Since  the  acid  in  a  sour  soil  is  weak,  it  will 
change  the  color  of  blue  litmus  paper  not  to  red,  but  to 
pink. 

Cut  a  slit  with  a  knife  in  the  moist  soil  to  be  tested  and 
place  the  blue  paper  in  this  slit.  Press  the  damp  soil 
against  both  sides  of  the  paper  for  about  two  minutes.  If 
the  paper  becomes  pink  where  it  has  been  moistened  by 
the  earth,  the  soil  is  acid.  The  deeper  or  redder  the  color, 
the  more  acid  is  the  soil. 

Large  areas  of  acid  soils  in  the  South.  —  In  regions  where 
the  long-leaf  or  yellow  pine  is  the  principal  forest  tree, 
much  acid  soil  is  usually  found,  especially  in  the  low 
places.  Farther  from  the  coast  sandy  soils  are  sometimes 
found  to  be  acid  even  on  the  tops  of  mountain  plateaus. 
Spots  of  poorly  drained  bottom  lands,  known  as  "  crawfish 
land,"  are  often  sour. 

Some  plants  are  able  to  grow  in  a  slightly  acid  soil.  — 
Fortunately  for  the  farmer  who  has  acid  soil,  many  useful 


After  R.  I.  Expt.  Station 

Fig.  70. — Watermelons  from  Equal  Areas 
I  and  3,  limed;  2  and  4,  not  limed. 

plants  grow  fairly  well  in  such  land.  Some  of  the  crops 
that  can  endure  slight  acidity  of  the  soil  are  cotton,  corn, 
cowpeas,  and  watermelons  (Fig.  70).     It  may  not  pay  to 


114  AGRICULTURE 

buy  lime  for  these.  There  are  other  plants,  however,  which 
will  not  thrive  on  a  sour  soil  until  lime  is  applied  as  a  fer- 
tilizing material.  Among  these  are  red  clover  and  alfalfa. 
Wheat,  peanuts,  sorghum,  onions,  beets,  and  cabbages 
yield  much  better  when  lime  is  used  on  a  soil  that  previ- 
ously was  acid. 

How  to  use  lime  as  a  fertilizer.  —  Quicklime  (or  lump 
lime)  must  be  slacked  before  being  spread.  This  can  be 
done  either  by  pouring  water  over  it  while  in  boxes  or  in 
the  wagon  body,  or  by  covering  piles  of  a  few  bushels  of 
quicklime  with  a  layer  of  damp  earth.  Within  a  few  days 
or  weeks  the  water  in  the  earth  will  reduce  the  lumps  of 
lime  to  powder,  and  it  is  then  ready  to  be  spread  broad- 
cast on  the  plowed  ground  and  harrowed  in.  From  six  to 
twelve  barrels  of  quicklime  (which  will  occupy  much 
more  space  and  weigh  more  after  slacking)  are  used  on 
one  acre.  Lime  need  not  be  applied  oftener  than  once  in 
three  or  five  years. 

Other  uses  of  lime  when  added  to  the  soil.  —  Lime  is  a 
plant-food.  Besides  overcoming  the  acidity  of  certain 
soils,  lime  causes  the  beneficial  nitrate-forming  germs  to 
increase.  It  is  useful  also  in  hastening  the  rotting  of 
vegetable  matter,  such  as  leaves  or  weeds  which  have  been 
plowed  under.  This  rotting  must  occur  before  roots  can 
use  such  vegetable  matter. 

Lime  makes  stiff  clay  soils  more  porous,  and  more 
easily  worked.  Like  cultivation,  it  is  a  stimulant.  It 
changes  some  of  the  potash  in  the  soil  into  a  form  that 
plants  can  use.  It  may  cause  a  poor,  sandy  soil  to  become 
exhausted  rapidly  by  putting  into  crops  the  little  fertility 


LIME 


115 


that  was  in  it.     This  can  be  avoided  by  constantly  adding 
vegetable  matter  and  necessary  plant-food. 

Do  not  mix  lime  with  barnyard  manure  or  acid  phos- 
phate, nor  add  it  to  a  manure  pile  or  compost  heap.  It 
rots  these  materials  so  rapidly  that  it  drives  off  into  the 
air  a  part  of  the  nitrogen  or  ammonia  of  the  manure, 
the*  loss  of  which  is  rhade  known  by  the  strong  smell  of 
the  escaping  ammonia  gas.  A  covering  of  soil  over  the 
compost  pile  would  absorb  and  hold  the  ammonia ;  hence 
lime  in  the  soil  would  not  do  the  harm  it  might  when 
mixed  above  the  ground  with  manures  or  fertilizers. 

Exercise.  —  If  possible  get  a  lump  of  builder's  lime ;  weigh  it  and 
notice  its  size ;  let  water  drip  slowly  on  it.  Again  weigh  it  and  notice 
its  size.     What  has  happened? 

At  this  rate  a  barrel  of  quicklime  weighing  165  pounds  would  make 
how  many  pounds  of  slacked  lime  ? 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  It  will  be  worth  while  to  buy  from  a 
wholesale  druggist  a  15-cent  bottle  of  blue  litmus  paper.  Obtain  in 
addition  a  bottle  of  red  litmus  paper,  which  is  turned  blue  by  lime. 
Have  pupils  test  a  number  of  soils  with  the  blue  litmus  paper,  afterwards 
showing  to  the  class  the  paper  used  and  describing  the  kind  of  soil 
found,  acid,  neutral,  or  alkaline.  Test  with  blue  and  red  litmus  all 
obtainable  fertilizers,  also  salt,  soda,  various  well-waters,  etc. 


Fig.  71. — Well  Colttvated  and  Poorly  Tilled  Soils.    Much  Reduced  in  Size 
Lime  aids  in  crumbling  clods. 


SECTION   XXI.     ROTATION   OF   CROPS 

Rotation  means  change  in  some  regular  order.  Rota- 
tion of  crops  is  the  exact  opposite  of  the  growth  of  the 
same  crop  year  after  year  on  the  same  land.  It  has  been 
found  that  when  one  kind  of  plant  is  grown  year  after 
year  on  the  same  land,  the  yield  decreases.  If  a  different 
kind  of  crop,  peanuts  or  cowpeas  for  example,  comes  in 
between  two  cotton  crops  or  two  wheat  crops,  the  yield  of 
the  cotton  or  wheat  is  greatly  increased.  The  different 
crops  ought  not  only  "to  take  time  about"  on  any  one 
field,  but  should  follow  each  other  in  a  somewhat  definite 
order.  It  is  impossible  in  this  limited  space  to  arrange 
tables  showing  the  best  order  for  all  crops  on  the  different 
soils.  However,  some  reasons  for  rotation  are  given  in 
the  following  pages. 

Rotation  to  get  rid  of  weeds.  —  A  corn  field  generally 
contains  more  grass  and  weeds  than  a  cotton  field,  because 
the  cultivation  of  the  corn  is  usually  stopped  earlier  in 
the  summer,  thus  giving  grass  a  chance  to  spring  up. 
Cotton  is  cultivated  so  late  into  the  summer  that  in  the 
fall  a  well-kept  cotton  field  is  nearly  clean.  If  a  field 
produces  several  crops  of  oats  or  wheat  in  succession,  it 
becomes  quite  weedy.  The  wise  farmer  will  grow  on  that 
field  one  or  two  crops  of  cotton  or  of  some  other  plant 
that  he  cultivates  very  tlioroughly,  in  order  to  get  rid  of 
the  weeds. 

ii6 


ROTATION   OF  CROPS 


117 


Rotation  to  add  vegetable  matter.  —  No  soil  can  be  kept 
fertile  unless  vegetable  matter  is  added  to  it,  either  by 
the  decay  of  large  amounts  of  plants  grown  on  the  land  or 
by  other  means.  Place  must  be  made  in  any  rotation  for 
an  occasional  crop  that  leaves  much  vegetable  matter  to  be 
plowed  under.  Such  crops  are  hay  plants,  which  com- 
pletely cover  the  surface  and  leave  a  mass  of  roots  and 
fallen  leaves.  The  stubble  of  wheat  and  oats,  together 
with  the  growth  of  weeds 
that  usually  follows  these 
grains,  also  affords  consider- 
able vegetable  matter. 

Rotation  to  add  nitrogen. 
—  Plants  like  cowpeas  and 
clovers  get  nitrogen  from 
the  air.  This  nitrogen  is 
added  to  the  soil  when  the 
growth  of  cowpeas  or  clover 
is  plowed  into  the  land. 
Even  the  stubble  and  roots 
of  these  crops,  when  plowed 
under,  increase  the  nitrogen 
in  the  soil.  Hence  a  wisely 
planned  rotation  makes  room 
for  the  growing,  as  fre- 
quently as  can  well  be  done, 
of  some  leguminous  crop,  such  as  cowpeas,  clover,  peanuts, 
or  velvet  beans.  When  oats  or  wheat  are  grown,  cow- 
peas ought  usually  to  be  sown  in  June  after  the  grain  crop 
is  removed.  •  Cowpeas  ought  generally  to  be  sown  among 


Fig.  72.  —  Twenty-five  Corn  Plants 
IN  EACH  Bundle 

On  left,  grown  after  plowing  under  the 
stubble  of  mixed  vetch  and  oats;  on 
right,  after  oat  stubble.  Weights,  33 
and  18  pounds. 


Il8  AGRICULTURE 

the  growing  corn  plants  to  improve  the  soil.  Figure  72 
shows  that  the  nitrogen  in  the  stubble  of  a  previous  crop 
of  vetch,  a  leguminous  plant,  increased  the  yield  of  com 
planted  as  soon  as  the  vetch  was  cut. 

Another  reason  for  rotating  crops  is  to  diversify  the 
farm  products.  The  farmer  who  grows  several  crops  has 
his  labor  better  distributed  over  the  entire  year  than  the 
farmer  who  grows  only  one  or  two  crops  and  is  less  injured 
if  storm,  accidents,  or  low  prices  cut  off  his  profit  on  one 
crop. 

Rotation  to  avoid  diseases  and  insect  pests.  —  Every 
cultivated  plant  has  its  own  special  diseases  and  insect 
enemies  that  do  not  attack  most  other  farm  crops.  Many 
kinds  of  disease  germs  and  insects  remain  alive  in  the 
soil  for  one  or  more  years,  ready  to  do  injury  when  the 
proper  plant  is  grown  on  that  field.  If  the  plants  that 
would  be  attacked  by  these  pests  are  kept  away  from 
that  field  for  a  few  years,  all  or  most  of  the  germs  or 
insects  die  of  starvation.  If,  however,  the  plant  subject 
to  attack  is  put  on  the  same  le.nd  again,  the  pest  increases 
and  does  more  and  more  harm. 

Examples  of  rotation.  —  Rotation  must  vary  with  the 
kinds  of  crops  to  be  grown  and  with  the  number  of  acres 
given  to  each.  Here  is  a  rotation  in  which  about  one  third 
of  the  land  is  to  be  used  for  producing  cotton  :  — 

Plant  one  third  of  the  land  in  cotton ;  one  third  in 
corn,  with  cowpeas  sown  later  between  the  corn  rows 
(Fig.  73);  and  one  third  in  oats  or  wheat,  planting  cowpeas 
in  June  after  the  grain  is  harvested.  This  is  called  a  three- 
year  rotation,  because  at  the   end   of   three   years  each 


ROTATION   OF  CROPS 


119 


field  starts  over  again  with  the  same  crop.  The  cow- 
peas  grown  between  the  corn  rows  fertilize  the  oats, 
which  is  the  next 
crop.  The  cow- 
peas  planted  just 
after  the  oats  are 
cut  may  be 
picked  or  cut  for 
hay  or  grazed. 
But  no  matter 
what  way  they 
are  used,  they  fer- 
tilize the  succeed- 
ing crop  of  cot- 
ton. Of  course, 
phosphate,  and 
sometimes  pot- 
ash, will  need 
to  be  purchased 
to  help  fertilize 
the  crops.  Thus 
cotton  following 
cowpeas  on  only 

one   third  of   the      Fig.  73.  —  Cowpeas  sown  between  the  Rows  of 

cultivated      land 

will  usually  produce  as  many  bales  as  when  half  or  more 
of  the  cultivated  land  is  used  for  cotton  and  only  a  few 
cowpeas  grown. 

Each  year  let  corn  follow  cotton ;    sow  oats  or  wheat 
on  the  field  that  has  just  borne  a  crop  of  corn  and  cow- 


120  AGRICULTURE 

peas ;  and  plant  cotton  every  year  where  oats  or  wheat 
(and  afterwards  cowpeas)  grew  the  year  before.  Study 
the  following  diagrams  until  this  order  of  cropping  is 
understood. 

Under  this  rotation  the  soil  bears  a  soil-improving  crop 
two  years  out  of  every  three  and  the  farm  becomes  richer 
year  by  year.  A  soil-improving  crop  can  be  grown  every 
year  by  sowing  crimson  clover,  vetch,  or  bur  clover  in 
September  among  the  cotton  plants. 

If  a  farmer  wishes  half  his  cultivated  area  to  be  in 
cotton,  he  can  easily  do  this  by  growing  cotton  two  years 
in  succession,  changing  the  three-year  to  a  four-year  rota- 
tion. In  a  four-year  rotation  each  field  bears  the  same 
crop  in  the  fifth  year  as  in  the  first.  The  smaller  areas 
used  for  peanuts,  sweet  potatoes,  vetches,  sorghum,  water- 
melons, and  other  minor  crops  are  rotated  on  different 
parts  of  a  single  field  near  the  barn,  letting  crops  that  add 
nitrogen  to  the  soil  rotate  with  those  that  do  not  have 
this  power. 

A  good  rotation  for  sugar  cane  in  regions  where  the 
cane  stubble  lives  through  the  winter  is :  —  first  year, 
corn,  with  cowpeas  grown  between  for  fertilizing  the 
cane  ;  second  year,  sugar  cane ;  third  year,  or  third  and 
fourth  years,  sugar  cane  from  the  stubble.  In  climates 
where  a  good  stand  of  sugar  cane  does  not  spring  up 
from  the  stubble,  a  rotation  for  sugar  cane  is :  first 
year,  cowpeas  or  velvet  beans ;  second  year,  sugar  cane. 
In  the  region  just  north  of  the  cotton-belt  a  satisfactory 
rotation  is:  first  year,  wheat,  among  which  red  clover  or 
grass  seeds  are  sown  ;  second  year,  clover  or  timothy  hay ; 


ROTATION   OF   CROPS 


121 


third  year,  corn  (after  clover),  or  timothy  hay  ;  fourth  year, 
corn  or  wheat. 


First  year 

Second  year 

Third  year 

Fourth 
year 

6 
"v 

Corn  ;       cowpeas 
between  rows ;  in 
fall  sow  in  oats  or 
wheat. 

Oats  ;    after    cut- 
ting oats  sow  cow- 
peas for  hay,  seed, 
or  grazing. 

Cotton. 

a 

6 

Oats  ;    after    cut- 
ting oats  or  wheat 
sow    cowpeas    for 
hay,    seed,     or 
grazing. 

Cotton. 

Corn  ;       cowpeas 
between  rows;  in 
fall  sow  in  oats  or 
wheat. 

b 

d 
I- 

Cotton. 

Corn  ;       cowpeas 
between  rows ;  in 
fall  sow  in  oats  or 
wheat. 

Oats  ;    after    cut- 
ting oats  sow  cow- 
peas for  hay,  seed, 
or  grazing. 

s 

C/2 

Fig.  74.  —  Diagram  showing  a  Simple  Three-year  Rotation 

The  soil  will  be  enriched  still  more  rapidly  if  crimson 
clover  is  added  to  a  rotation  for  a  cotton  farm.  This 
three-year  rotation  then  takes  the  following  form :  — 


First  year 

Second  year 

Third  year 

Summer 

Winter 

Summer 

Winter 

Summer 

Winter 

Corn,  with 
cowpeas 

Oats  or 
Wheat 

Cowpeas 

Crimson 
Clover 

Cotton 

Crimson 
Clover 

Fig.  75.  —  Diagram  showing  a  Three-year  Rotation  for  rapidly 
IMPROVING  A  Cotton  Farm 


122 


AGRICULTURE 


In  three  years  under  this  rotation  a  field  bears  three 
fiber  and  grain  crops  (cotton,  oats,  and  corn)  and  four 
crops  of  soil-improving  forage  plants  (cowpcas  and  crim- 
soQ  clover,  each  twice). 

Exercise.  —  What  farm  or  garden  crops,  that  are  extensively  grown 
in  your  neighborhood,  leave  the  field  most  free  from  weed^  ?  Which 
one  permits  weeds  to  grow  ?  Can  the  corn  crop  be  harvested  in  time 
for  wheat  or  fall-sown  oats  to  be  sown  ? 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  Encourage  pupils  who  have  grown  up  on 
farms  to  write  on  the  blackboard  a  statement  of  the  best  rotation  in 
use  by  any  farmer  of  their  acquaintance,  and  to  decide  whether  any  of 
the  teachings  of  this  Section  and  of  Section  XXX  suggest  a  possible 
improvement  in  the  local  rotation  of  crops. 


Fic.  76. 


A  Cotton  Field,  showing  a  Bountiful  Yield  ruou  Rotahon 
or  Crops  and  Tuosoucii  Cultivation 


SECTION    XXII.     CORN 

Corn  belongs  to  the  grass  family.  Some  of  the  plants 
to  which  it  is  related  are  all  true  grasses,  as  sugar  cane, 
wheat,  oats,  rye,  barley,  and  rice.  Corn  differs  from  most 
of  its  relatives  in  having  both  a  tassel  and  an  ear,  and  in 
having  these  located  on  different  parts  of  the  plant. 

A  corn  plant  in  full  tassel  gives  off  a  cloud  of  dust-like 
particles  when  shaken.  There  are  estimated  to  be  about 
18,000,000  tiny  pollen  grains  formed  by  each  tassel.  Most 
of  these  are  wasted,  but  those  that  fall  on  the  silks  are 
useful.  There  are  as  many  silks  as  spaces  for  grains  of 
corn  on  the  ear. 

Races  of  corn.  — There  are  only  a  few  races  of  corn,  the 
most  important  being  pop,  sweet,  dent  (or  common),  and 
flint  corn.     In  each  race  there  are  many  varieties. 

Mixing  of  races  of  corn.  —  Some  ears  of  popcorn  have 
some  kernels  like  those  of  field  corn.  These  have  been 
crossed  with  common  com.  Hence  popcorn  should  not 
be  planted  near  other  kinds  that  will  tassel  at  the  same 
time.  If  it  is  impossible  to  plant  it  away  from  all  other 
kinds,  arrange  the  date  of  planting  so  as  to  have  it  silk 
and  tassel  before  the  other  corn,  or  after  the  tassels  on  the 
common  corn  have  shed  their  pollen  and  dried.  Sweet 
corn  readily  crosses  with  field  corn,  and  some  of  its  grains 
are  then  smooth  instead  of  wrinkled,  as  dry  kernels  of 
sweet  corn  ought   to   be.     When   these  races  cross,  the 

123 


124 


AGRICULTURE 


character  of  the  grain  is  generally  changed  the  same  year 

that  the  mixing  occurs. 

Varieties  of  field  or  dent  corn.  —  There  are  several  hun- 

dred   varieties  of    field    com. 

Many  of  them  are  Northern 
kinds,  too  small  and  early  to 
yield  well  in  the  South.  Ex- 
periments have  shown  that 
the  following  varieties  are 
often  among  the  most  pro- 
ductive for  the  Gulf  states 
and  regions  with  similar  cli- 
mate :  Mosby,  Cocke,  and 
Henry  Grady.  In  most  ex- 
periments in  the  South  varie- 
ties with  two  medium-sized 
ears  have  yielded  more  corn 
than  those  having  a  single 
large  ear  per   plant. 

Mixing  may  not  show  the 
first  year.  —  There  may  be  a 
large  amount  of  crossing  be- 
tween varieties  of  common 
corn,  and  yet  the  farmer  may 
be  unable  to  see  it  by  exam- 
ining the  ears.  A  white  va- 
riety may  grow  beside  a  yel- 
low variety  of  dent  com  and 
yet  the   first   year  there  may 

be   no   white   grains   on    the   yellow    ears.      This   is    be- 


Fio.  77.  —  A  Tall  Variety  of 
CoKN,  Mexican  June 


CORN 


125 


cause  crossing  between  two  varieties  of  dent  corn  does 
not  always  change  the  character  of  the  grains  the  first 
year.  The  growing  of  two  varieties  of  corn  close  together 
(unless  they  are  planted  at  such  dates  as  to  cause  them 
to  tassel  at  different  times)  should  be  avoided. 

Corn  is  a  plant  easily  improved  by  the  method  given 
in  Section  VIII.  It  is  also  a  plant  that  quickly  becomes 
mixed,  and  hence  inferior,  if  great  care  is  not  taken  in  the 


Fig.  78.  —  Showing  Three  Methods  of  planting  Corn 

selection  of  seed.      Learn  the  best  kind  of  corn  for  your 
soil,  then  keep  it  pure  and  improve  it. 

Corn  roots  and  the  preparation  they  require.  —  A  corn 
plant  may  have  20  to  50  roots,  many  of  them  as  long  as 
the  plant  itself.  These,  with  their  branches  and  root- 
hairs,  are  always  busy  taking  water  from  the  soil.  Hence 
corn  yields  best  on  a  soil  that  is  always  moist  (but  not 
wet).  It  needs  land  so  deeply  plowed  before  planting  and 
so  well  drained  that  some  of  its  roots  can  grow  deep  down 
where  there  is  moisture  even  when  the  weather  is  dry. 
Plow  deep  in  preparing  a  field,  if  you  can  plow  early. 


126  AGRICULTURE 

Corn  is  planted  either  in  elevated  ridges  or  beds,  in  de- 
pressions or  water  furrows,  or  in  level  ground  (Fig,  78), 
according  to  the  soil  and  the  farmer's  judgment.  Plant 
corn  just  deep  enough  to  make  sure  that  it  will  continually 
be  in  moist  soil  until  germinated.  Usually  a  depth  be- 
tween one  and  three  inches  is  best. 

Distance  between  plants.  —  The  poorer  and  drier  the 
land,  the  greater  must  be  the  distance  between  plants. 
But  land  on  which  corn  requires  more  than  three  feet 
between  plants,  in  rows  five  feet  apart,  is  probably  too  poor 
and  dry  for  corn.  The  richer  and  moister  the  land,  the  more 
the  plants  can  be  crowded  ;  the  rows  on  some  bottom 
lands  are  only  three  and  a  half  feet  apart.  In  the  South, 
corn  is  usually  planted  from  the  first  of  March  to  the 
middle  of  June. 

Cultivation.  —  Corn  roots  are  long  and  near  the  surface  ; 
this  shows  that  cultivation  ought  to  be  shallow.  Heavy 
rains  after  planting  make  some  clay  lands  very  compact. 
This  causes  some  farmers  to  give  one  deep  cultivation 
while  the  plants  are  very  small.  Avoid  this  unless  sure 
that  it  is  necessary,  and  then  make  this  deep  cultivation 
only  when  the  plants  are  very  young.  A  corn  plant  six 
inches  high  may  have  roots  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  long. 
Many  of  them  would  be  cut  by  deep  cultivation. 

It  is  possible  and  wise  to  cultivate  corn  before  it  comes 
up.  This  is  done  by  running  a  spike-tooth  harrow  or  a 
weeder  over  the  field,  either  across  or  along  the  rows.  In 
this  way  millions  of  tiny  weeds  and  grass  plants  are  killed 
just  after  they  have  come  up.  This  early  cultivation  also 
forms  a  loose  layer  of  earth  all  over  the  field,  which  holds 


CORN  127 

the  moisture  in  the  ground,  thus  making  the  corn  come 
up  more  completely  and  quickly  and  causing  the  young 
plants  to  grow  more  rapidly.  This  cultivation  with  the 
weeder  can  be  kept  up  until  the  corn  plants  are  several 
inches  or  even  a  foot  high.  One  man  with  a  horse  or 
mule  can  thus  cultivate  10  to  12  acres  in  a  day. 

In  the  cotton  belt,  upland  corn  is  usually  thinned  to  one 
plant  in  a  hill.  Corn  should  be  cultivated  as  soon  after 
every  rain  as  the  soil  is  dry  enough.  A  cheap  implement 
much  used  in  the  South  for  cultivating  corn  is  the  "  heel 
scrape."  Various  styles  of  one-horse  and  two-horse  culti- 
vators are  used.  Cultivation  usually  ceases  before  all  the 
silks  appear.  In  cultivating  corn  avoid  ridging  the  land 
very  much,  because  this  takes  earth  from  the  middle  of  the 
row  and  because  ridging  increases  the  amount  of  surface 
that  evaporates  moisture. 

Fertilizers.  —  Corn  grows  best  on  rich,  moist  land,  and  it 
pays  better  to  enrich  the  land  by  growing  cowpeas  or  other 
soil-improving  plants  in  previous  years  than  to  use  large 
amounts  of  commercial  fertilizers.  Manure,  applied  early, 
is  the  best  fertilizing  material  for  corn.  When  this  cannot 
be  had,  moderate  amounts  of  commercial  fertilizers  rich  in 
nitrogen  may  be  used  on  land  needing  fertilizer.  A  mix- 
ture of  200  pounds  of  cotton-seed  meal  and  100  pounds  of 
acid  phosphate  per  acre  is  often  satisfactory. 

Stripping  the  leaves.  —  Many  farmers  in  the  South  strip 
off  the  corn  leaves  to  obtain  "  fodder "  with  which  to 
feed  their  teams.  When  the  farmer  strips  the  green  leaves 
from  the  corn  plant  he  stops  the  accumulation  of  carbon, 
the  material   of   which   the   corn   grain   chiefly   consists. 


128  AGRICULTURE 

Thus  he  reduces  the  yield  of  corn  grain  several  bushels 
per  acre.  The  same  amount  of  labor  employed  in  making 
hay  as  in  "  pulling  fodder  "  would  produce  much  more  food 
for  stock.  The  practice  of  cutting  and  shocking  the  corn 
plants  just  after  most  of  the  shucks  have  turned  brownish 
does  not  greatly  reduce  the  yield. 

Exercise.  —  Find  ears  or  even  kernels  of  sweet  com  and  popcorn,  and 
bring  these,  as  well  as  dent-corn  ears,  to  the  class.  Write  in  your  note- 
book a  description  of  the  shape,  size,  etc.,  of  grains  of  each.  Examine 
a  com  plant  and  locate  the  brace  roots.  Examine  ten  ears  of  corn  and 
record  in  your  notebook  the  number  of  rows  on  each.  Can  you  find 
any  ear  with  fifteen  rows?  Can  you  discover  any  law  or  rule  about 
the  number  of  rows? 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  Helpful  object  lessons  for  this  chapter 
are :  Dried  or  fresh  corn  tassels ;  unhusked  ears  of  corn  with  adhering 
silks ;  ears  of  sweet,  pop,  flint,  and  dent  corn,  and  ears  of  pop  or  sweet 
com  with  a  few  dent  grains.  Com  kernels  planted  close  to  the  glass 
side  of  a  box  (Fig.  22  )  or  near  the  glass  inside  of  a  tumbler  permit  a 
study  of  com  roots.  Keep  the  glass  covered  with  black  pai)er  or 
cloth  except  when  making  observations.  Washing  the  soil  from  the 
roots  of  a  growing  corn  plant,  by  the  use  of  a  small  stream  of  water 
from  an  elevated  barrel  or  bucket,  will  reveal  the  length  and  position 
of  the  roots  and  thus  enforce  the  lesson  of  shallow  cultivation. 


SECTION   XXIII.       SELECTING   OR  JUDGING 
SEED-CORN 


By  careful  selection  of  seed-corn,  five 
bushels  or  more  per  acre  can  be  added  to 
the  usual  yield.  It  pays  well,  therefore,  to 
learn  to  select  or  judge  corn.  It  is  im- 
portant to  select  seed  from  good  plants, 
and  also  from  the  best  ears. 

Selecting  the  best  ear.  —  On  p.  131  is  the 
score-card  adopted  by  the  corn-growers  of 
one  state.  It  gives  all  the  points  to  be  taken 
into  consideration  in  judging  corn.  Experi- 
ence is  needed  to  bring  skill  in  this. 

General  Directions.  Begin  with  the  second 
horizontal  line  in  the  table,  which  is  for  "shape  of 
ear."  Carefully  examine  the  ear  to  discover  whether 
or  not  the  shape  is  perfect.  Among  defects  may 
be  slight  crookedness,  too  much  taper,  or  rows  of 
kernels  twisting  around  the  cob  instead  of  being 
straight.  A  shape  that  is  very  good  may  be  scored 
"9";  a  perfect  shape,  10,  is  rare.  If  there  are  very 
great  defects  in  shape,  give  it  some  lower  number,  say 
"  8,"  if  its  only  weak  point  is  a  moderate  twisting 
of  the  rows  of  kernels. 

After  deciding  on  the  score  for  each  quality,  write 
the  figure  or  grade  in  the  proper  blank  column  in  the 
table.  When  all  the  other  qualities  have  been  noted, 
score  the  first  one. 

K  129 


Fig.  79.  —  Tip, 
Side  View,  and 
Butt  OF  A  Prize- 
winning       Eau 

OF   CORH 


I30 


AGRICULTURE 


Color  of  grain  and  cob.  —  The  color  of  all  kernels  on 
the  same  car  (or  on  the  same  set  of  ears  in  exhibits  at 
fairs)  should  be  the  same. 

The  color  of  the  cob  should  not  be  different  from  the 
usual  color  for  that  variety.  White  cobs  are  preferred 
if  the  grain  is  white,  and  red  cobs  if  the  grain  is  yellow. 
The  yield,  however,  is  not  affected,  whether  the  cob  be  uni- 
formly white  or  uniformly  red.  Cobs  of  different  colors 
in  one  variety  indicate  impurity  or  crossing,  and  such  ears 
should  be  rejected. 

Vitality  or  seed  condition.  —  A  germination  test  shows 
the  vitality  most  accurately.     However,  the  appearance  of 


Fig.  8o.  —  Tips  and  Butts  or  Cor.v 
On  right,  poor;  in  center,  better;  on  left,  good. 

the  tips  of  the  grains  often  indicates  how  they  may  germi- 
nate. Poor  or  low  germination  results  when  the  tips  of 
the  grains  are  either  (i)  black  or  brownish,  (2)  shriveled, 


SELECTING   OR  JUDGING   SEED-CORN 


131 


O     O     O     O     "^"^O     u^O     ir\    ir\    ir\    O 


K. 


-§  s 

C       "^ 


*j     C5 


<u 


tuO 


O      4, 


■^-5    9- 


O     V 


C  1;  iH        •-  ° 

H  en  U  >  h  W 


^  ^  ^  ^   -^  -^ 
,.    <U    i>    *^    B     <u    <u 

i2    a    c    sjo  3    o    o 


.■V         ^  t         •— >         L^         ^«         ^^ 

!>    i*    u  .t3    a,  a. 
I;^  tii  hJ  U  CO  c/2  I 


>-i(Srr)'^u^vOt~vCOOO'->Mm 


132 


AGRICULTURE 


(3)  covered  after  being  shelled  by  small  bits  of  the  cob,  or 

(4)  very  slender  and   sharp-pointed.     Generally  a  grain 
with  well-filled  shoulders  next  the  cob  and  with  a  large 

kkkkkkkkUiii    kkkkk 

wniiiiiii  If  9f  f 

Courtny  lova  Ezpt.  8taUo«. 

Fic.  81.  —  Good  and  Poor  Shapes  of  Corn  Kkrxels 

germ  (Fig.  82  below)  affords  strong  sprouts   that  make 

good  plants. 

Tips  of  ears.  —  The  grains  near  the  tip  of  the  ear  should 

be  well  shaped  and  the  rows  should  extend  well  out  to  the 

end  of  the  cob. 
The  less  cob  ex- 
posed, the  better 
(Fig.  80). 

Butts  of  ears. 
—  On  the  butt, 
or  larger  end 
of  the  ear, 
there  should  be 
straight  rows  of 
grains  and  very 
few    irregularly 

shaped    kernels.       The   best    butts   are  those   in   which 

the  grains  extend  beyond  the  end  of  the  cob,  leaving  a 


Fic.  8a. 


After  HoMra. 

Various  Shates  or  Corn  Kernels 
I,  3,  8,  and  9  are  the  best. 


SELECTING   OR  JUDGING   SEED-CORN 


133 


medium-sized  depression  where  the  ear  stalk  or  shank  was 
attached  to  the  cob.  Stand  the  ear  on  end.  If  the  butt  is 
even,  as  it  should  be,  the  ear  will  stand  erect  or  vertical. 
An  ear  with  butt  much  larger  than  the  remainder  of  the  ear, 
or  with  several  extra,  short  rows  of  grains,  is  badly  shaped. 

Uniformity  of  kernels.  —  Except  the  grains  near  the  ends 
of  the  ear,  the  kernels  on  one  ear  and  in  one  variety  should 
be  nearly  similar  in  shape,  size,  and  de- 
gree of  denting  on  the  top.  When  corn 
is  planted  by  machinery,  it  is  important 
for  the  grains  to  be  of  one  size,  so  that 
the  same  number  may  be  dropped  in  each 
hill. 

Shape  of  kernels.  —  The  grains  are 
most  compactly  arranged  when  they  are 
almost  square-shouldered,  both  at  the 
crown  or  top,  and  next  the  cob.  A  grain 
rounded  at  the  top  wastes  space  and  is 
apt  to  be  short.  A  well-shaped  kernel 
is  well  filled  next  to  the  cob,  giving  room 
for  a  large  germ.  The  larger  the  germ, 
the  better.  The  grain  should  be  large, 
and  it  is  best  when  the  shape  is  like 
numbers  i,  2,  8,  9  (Fig.  82). 

Length  of  ear.  —  The  best  length  dif- 
fers for  different  varieties.  If  the  ears 
are  short,  the  yield  is  reduced.  If  they  are  unusually 
long,  there  is  danger  that  the  ear  may  not  be  well  covered 
by  the  shuck.  In  varieties  bearing  only  one  ear  to  the 
plant,  the  ear  should  generally  be  more  than  nine  inches  long. 


Fig.  83.  —  Cross 
Sections  through 
Ears  of  Corn 

I,  grains  too  short;  2, 
too  much  space  be- 
tween rows  and  cob 
too  small;  3,  good 
shape  of  kernels. 


134 


AGRICULTURE 


Circumference  of  ear.  —  The  measure  around  an  ear  is 
taken  with  a  tape-line  a:  a  point  one  third  the  distance  from 
the  larger  end.  The  usual  rule  is  for  the  circumference  to 
be  three  fourths  the  length  of  the  same  ear.  An  ear  much 
larger  around  than  this  may  have  too  large  a  cob,  and  may 
dry  out  too  slowly.  A  very  slender  ear 
may  have  too  small  a  cob,  and  grains  that 
are  much  too  short. 

Space  between  rows.  —  If  these  fur- 
rows are  deep  and  wide,  they  indicate 
a  poorly  shaped,  round-shouldered  kernel. 
Such  ears  yield  a  low  percentage  of 
grain  (Fig.  83). 

Space  between  kernels  at  cob.  —  Spaces 
between  the  flat  sides  of  the  kernels,  near 
the  cob,  show  that  the  grains  are  not  oc- 
cupying all  the  room  they  might  (Fig.  84). 
On  right,  too  much   On  such  ears,  the  tips  of  the  kernels  are 

space  between  ker-  ^    .      i       ^        .t  •  .         n  •  t  n 

nels  at  the  cob-  on    ^P^  ^°  "^  ^°°  ^"'"  ^^  ^^^  "^*  ^*'"  ^  Small 

left,  kernels  6tting  germ ;    the  grains  seem  loose  when  the 

close  together.  .      .     •   ^     ^ 

ear  is  twisted. 

Proportion  of  com  to  cob.  —  This  is  determined  by  shell- 
ing the  ear  (or  half  the  ears  in  an  exhibit  of  ten  ears),  and 
weighing  the  shelled  corn  and  the  cob.  The  weight  of  the 
shelled  grain  is  then  divided  by  the  weight  of  cob  and 
grain.  The  quotient  gives  the  per  cent  of  g^ain  on  the 
husked  ear.  With  most  highly  bred  varieties  the  selected 
ears  arc  expected  to  show  at  least  86  or  88  per  cent  of  grain. 

Germination  test.  — Vacant  hills,  or  poor  stands,  greatly 
reduce  the  yield  of  corn.     They  are  often  due  to  planting 


2 

Fio.   84.  —  Sections 

THKOIJGH      TWO 

Eass  or  CoKN 


SELECTING   OR  JUDGING   SEED-CORN  135 

ears  on  which  the  germs  in  the  grains  are  dead  or  injured. 
A  very  even  stand  may  be  obtained  by  testing  between 
moist  blotting-paper  six  grains  from  every  ear  of  seed- 
corn.  Do  not  plant  the  ears  whose  grains  fail  to  sprout 
or  that  make  small,  weak  sprouts. 

Exercise.  —  Every  pupil  should  bring  to  school  at  least  one  ear  of 
com  for  use  in  reciting  this  lesson.  After  one  ear  has  been  scored 
under  the  teacher's  direction  pupils  may  by  themselves  practice  scoring 
or  comparing  other  ears. 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  The  first  day  let  every  pupil  carefully 
score  one  ear.  Repeat  this  exercise  from  two  to  four  times,  being  care- 
fol  that  each  day  every  pupil  scores  a  different  ear  or  ears.  Encourage 
every  one  to  give  the  reasons  why  he  scored  each  quality  of  a  certain 
ear  high  or  low,  and  by  consensus  of  opinion  try  to  decide  which  are 
really  the  best  ears. 

When  the  class  shows  some  proficiency  in  scoring  single  ears,  and 
before  interest  wanes,  endeavor  to  have  every  pupil  bring  from  home 
either  five,  or  better  ten,  selected  ears.  Let  them  first  place  the  ears 
quickly  from  left  to  right  in  supposed  order  of  merit ;  then  score  every 
ear,  re-arranging  the  ears  according  to  the  scores  now  given.  Two  or 
more  days  may  well  be  spent  on  each  set  of  ten  ears.  Then  new  sets 
may  be  brought  or  the  different  sets  may  be  exchanged. 

It  will  stimulate  interest  and  proficiency  to  promise  that  when  the 
class  has  had  five  to  ten  days  of  practice  in  corn  judging,  it  may  give  a 
public  exhibition  of  corn  and  of  corn  judging. 

The  public  exercises  should  consist  of  (i)  the  placing  in  order  of 
merit  of  five  or  ten  ears,  (2)  the  careful  scoring  of  some  of  these  ears, 
and  (3)  in  answer  to  the  teacher's  questions,  a  statement  of  reasons  why 
certain  ears  are  scored  or  arranged  low  down. 

This  may  be  supplemented  by  a  display  of  sets  of  ten  ears  of  corn 
brought  on  invitation  by  neighbors ;  by  the  display  of  the  results  of 
a  germination  test;  by  the  reading  of  a  short  composition  on  some 
phase  of  corn  growing ;  and  by  the  reading  of  extracts  from  bulletins 
on.  corn  published  bv  some  experiment  station. 


SECTION   XXIV.     WHEAT,   OATS,   RYE,   AND 
BARLEY 

These  four  crops  are  called  the  small-grains.  Each 
one  of  them  is  an  important  human  food  in  some  part  of 
the  world.  Oats  and  barley  are  largely  used  as  hay  or 
pasturage.  Their  straw  is  fed  to  live-stock  or  used  for 
bedding.    Wheat  makes  better  bread  than  any  other  grain. 

Resemblances  between  the  small-grains.  —  Wheat,  oats, 
rye,  and  barley  all  bear  seeds  or  grains  at  the  top  of  a 
hollow  stem  or  straw.  Although  the  walls  of  the  straw 
are  thin,  the  hollow  form  gives  great  strength  to  a  small 
amount  of  stem  material. 

These  small-grain  plants  are  alike  in  having  no  tap- 
root, but  only  a  great  number  of  fine  roots  springing 
from  a  center  or  crown.  This  crown,  or  starting-place  for 
the  permanent  roots,  is  usually  about  one  inch  below  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  whether  the  seed  be  planted  deep 
or  shallow.     The  seeds  are  sown  one  to  three  inches  deep. 

Some  differences  between  the  plants  of  wheat,  oats,  rye, 
and  barley.  —  The  heads  of  oats  are  branched  and  open, 
but  those  of  wheat,  rye,  and  barley  have  grain  clusters  or 
spikelets  closely  joined  to  the  main  stem.  The  heads  of 
rye  are  long,  somewhat  flattened,  and  have  long  beards. 
Common  barley  and  bearded  wheat  have  shorter  heads 
with  stiff  spreading  beards.  Some  of  the  best  varieties  of 
wheat,  however,  do  not  have  beards. 

«36 


WHEAT,   OATS,   RYE,  AND   BARLEY 


137 


Fig.  85. — Part  of  a 
Young  Barley 
Plant,  showing 
Large  "  Clasps" 


How  to  recognize  the  seeds  of  the  small-grains.  —  The 

threshed  grain  of  wheat,  oats,  rye,  and 

barley    may    be   distinguished    as    fol- 
lows :  — 

Oat  kernels  are  wrapped   tightly  in 

a   long  tough  hull.     Barley  grains  are 

covered   with    a    hull   that   has   grown 

to    the     kernel,    forming    an     angular 

grain.    Wheat  grains  have  no  hull  after 

being    threshed,    and    are    short     and 

usually  plump.     Rye  grains,  like  wheat 

grains,    have     no    attached     hull,     but 

are    longer    and    more    wrinkled    than 

those  of   wheat. 

How  to  recognize  the  young 
plants.  —  It  is  possible  to  distin- 
guish between  fields  of  these  plants 
when  they  are  small.  This  can  be 
done  by  the  width  of  the  leaves,  and 
the  erect  or  spreading  growth.  It 
is  sometimes  puzzling  to  decide 
whether  a  single  young  plant  is 
wheat,  oats,  rye,  or  barley.  On  the 
leaves  of  young  barley,  wheat,  and 
rye  plants  there  are  tiny  growths 
like  little  horns,  clasping  the  stem. 
These  may  be  called  "  clasps."  They 

Fig.  86. -Part  of  a  Young    ^gi     ^^  identify  the  plants  (Figs.  85, 
Plant  of  Oats,  showing  j  l  \      o 

THE  Absence  of  "Clasps"   86,  87,  and  88).     Barley  has  larger 

clasps  than  any  other  kind  of  small-grain.    Wheat  has  the 


138 


AGRICULTURE 


next  largest,  or  medium-sized  clasps.  They  are  unlike 
those  of  barley  and  rye,  and  bear  on 
their  edges  a  few  very  fine,  short  hairs. 
Rye  has  smaller  clasps  than  either 
wheat  or  barley.  The  oat  plant  has  no 
clasps  at  all. 

The  flowers   of  the   small-grains.  — 

Wherever  there  is  a  single  grain  of  oats 

or  wheat,  there  has  once  been  a  flower. 

It  had  no  brilliant  color,  but  resembled 

a  flower  only  in  that  it  had  the  essential 

Fig.  87.  — Part  of  a  parts,  that  is.  Stamens  and  pistils.     The 

sho'^winT  SmaTi!  gi'een  flower  of  oats,  wheat,  rye,  or  bar- 

" Clasps"  ley  before  the  grain  has  begun  to  form 

contains  in  each  grain  place  three  stamens  or  pollen-cases 

and  two  feathery,  plume-like  stigmas  (Fig.  10). 

Oats,  wheat,  and  barley  do  not 
need  bright  colors  and  nectar  in 
their  flowers  to  attract  insects, 
because  they  are  self-pollinated. 
That  is,  the  pollen  in  any  one 
flower  fertilizes  the  pistil  in  that 
same  flower.  Self-pollination  does 
not  seem  to  injure  plants  that  are 
accustomed  to  it.  It  keeps  varie- 
ties of  wheat  or  of  oats  from  mix- 
ing with  each  other  through  the 
carrying  of  pollen  by  wind  or  in- 
sects. Thus  red  oats  do  not  naturally  cross  with  Burt  or 
Turf  oats.     However,  rye  may  be  cross-pollinated. 


Fig.  88.  —  Pakt  or  a  Youno 
Wheat  PLA>rr,  showing 
"  Clasps  "  bokdeked  with 
Hairs 


WHEAT,   OATS,   RYE,   AND   BARLEY  139 

Preparation  of  land.  —  Good  preparation  should  be 
given  to  the  land  intended  for  wheat.  This  grain  requires  a 
seed-bed  that  at  the  time  of  planting  is  compact  or  settled 
in  the  lower  layers  but  loose  and  fine  in  the  upper  ones. 
This  is  best  secured  by  plowing  land  for  wheat  a  number 
of  weeks  before  sowing  the  seed.  Then  pulverize  the 
clods  with  a  harrow. 

Unfortunately,  some  farmers  seem  to  think  that  any  kind 
of  preparation  or  none  at  all  is  good  enough  for  oats.  An 
oat  seed  is  well  protected  by  its  hull  and  can  lie  for  weeks 
uninjured  among  dry  clods.  But,  nevertheless,  oats  should 
not  be  deeply  buried  under  large  clods,  for  this  makes 
the  plants  come  up  at  different  dates  and  ripen  unevenly, 
and  makes  the  stand  thinner  than  it  would  otherwise  be. 

Thickness  of  sowing  small-grains. — When  planted  at  the 
usual  distance,  a  wheat  or  an  oat  plant  generally  ripens  from 
two  to  six  heads  on  an  equal  number  of  stems  or  branches. 
But  a  plant  well  fertilized,  planted  early,  and  given  abun- 
dant space,  may  form  more  than  a  score  of  stems  and  heads. 

This  habit  of  branching  from  buds  at  the  crown  permits 
the  plants  of  these  crops  to  occupy  as  much  or  more  than 
the  usual  space.  It  explains  why  sometimes  just  as  large 
a  crop  comes  from  sowing  two  bushels  of  oats  as  from  sow- 
ing three  bushels  per  acre.  About  five  pecks  of  wheat 
or  rye  per  acre  are  generally  sown. 

Varieties.  —  Among  the  standard  varieties  of  wheat  for 
the  Southern  states  are  Blue  Stem  and  Fultz,  which  are 
beardless  or  smooth,  and  Fuicaster,  which  has  beards. 
Red  oats  is  the  standard  Southern  kind.  It  is  called  rust- 
proof because  it  is  less  injured  by  rust  than  most  other 


I40 


AGRICULTURE 


varieties.  The  Burt  oat  is  an  early  Southern  variety  and 
is  sown  after  Christmas.  Southern  rye  affords  more  forage 
than  does  rye  seed  brought  south  from  higher  latitudes. 


Fio.  89.  —  Showing  the  Larger  and  Earlier  Growth  in  Spring  made 
BY  Oats  sown  in  the  Fall  than  by  those  sown  in  February 

Time  to  sow  small-grains.  —  Rye  and  wheat  are  usually 
unhurt  by  the  coldest  weather  that  occurs  in  the  Southern 
states.  Hence  they  are  always  sown  in  the  fall.  Barley 
and  winter,  or  Turf,  oats  are  usually  sown  in  the  same 
season.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  cotton-belt,  Red  oats 
can  be  sown  either  in  the  fall  or  after  Christmas.     Wher- 


WHEAT,   OATS,   RYE,   AND   BARLEY 


141 


ever  oats  can  live  through  the  winter,  the  yield  is  much 
larger  from  sowing  the  seed  in  the  fall  than  from  sowing 
oats  after  Christmas  (Fig.  89). 

Increasing  the  resistance  of  oats  to  cold.  —  Fall-sown 
oats  are  much  more 
productive  than  those 
sown  later,  and  so  it 
pays  to  help  oats  live 
through  the  winter. 
Notice  young  oat 
plants  on  a  clay  soil 
late  in  a  cold  winter, 
and  you  may  observe 
that  the  whitened 
roots  of  many  young 
plants  are  partly 
above  ground.  In 
this  position  they  are 
easily  killed.  The 
repeated  freezing  of 
the  water  in  the  soil 
has  lifted  them. 
Water  swells  in  turn- 
ing to  ice,  so  that 
the  ice  is  forced  up 
above  ground.  In  rising  it  lifts  a  little  earth,  and  with  the 
earth  the  young  and  slightly  rooted  plant  is  carried. 
When  the  ground  thaws,  the  uplifted  earth,  being  heavy, 
falls  back  into  place,  but  the  plant  remains  in  its  raised 
position.     This  heaving  may  be  repeated  several  times. 


Courtesy  Cal.  Expt.  Station 

Fig.  90.  —  A  Good  Sample  of  Wheat 


142 


AGRICULTURE 


If  oats  are  sown  early  enough  in  the  lall,  they  form 
long,  strong  roots  which  tend  to  anchor  them.     A  more 

certain  method  of  pro- 
tecting them  against 
death  from  cold  con- 
sists in  planting  them 
in  deep  furrows  that  are 
not  entirely  filled  in. 
The  young  plants  are 
safer  here  because  it  is 
more  difficult  for  a 
plant  in  a  low  place  to 
be  lifted  by  a  freeze 
than  for  one  in  a  higher 
place.  In  sowing  oats 
thus  in  open  furrows 
a  one-horse  planter  is 
used,  run  in  the  bottom 
of  a  furrow  made  with 
a  shovel-plow.  The 
drills  are  i8  to  24 
inches  apart. 

Improvement  of  seed.  —  Large  seeds  generally  produce 
larger  crops  than  do  light  seeds  (Figs.  90,  91).  Both  wheat 
and  oats  can  be  greatly  improved  by  selecting  the  best 
plants  and  sowing  their  seed  in  a  small  seed-plot.  Any 
improvement  once  made  is  apt  to  be  permanent,  because 
wheat  and  oats  do  not  cross  with  inferior  kinds.  On  any 
farm  where  oats  or  wheat  mature  large,  plump  grains,  it 
is  better  to  use  home-grown  seeds  than  those  from  other 


Courtoj  Cftl.  Expt.  SutloD 

Fig.  91.  —  \  Poor  Sample  of  Wheat; 
Grains  Shriveled 


WHEAT,   OATS,   RYE,   AND   BARLEY  143 

parts  of  the  country.  When  properly  cared  for,  wheat  and 
oats  do  not  "  run  out "  and  do  not  require  change  of  seed. 
Fertilizers  for  small  grains.  —  These  plants  make  much 
of  their  growth  during  the  cooler  part  of  the  year.  Then 
the  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil  is  not  then  rotting  very 
rapidly  so  as  to  furnish  the  plant  with  available  nitrogen. 
For  this  reason  the  fertiHzer  for  the  small  grains  ought  to 
be  rich  in  nitrogen.  Nitrate  of  soda  is  especially  suited  to 
the  small  grains.  This  can  be  sown  on  the  growing  plants 
in  spring  and  need  not  be  covered.  Acid  phosphate,  ap- 
plied when  the  seed  are  sown,  is  often  a  profitable  fertilizer 
for  small  grains  On  very  poor  soils,  it  may  be  necessary 
to  add  also  some  form  of  potash,  making  a  complete  fer- 
tilizer. 

Exercise.  —  If  this  chapter  is  studied  just  after  rye  has  formed  heads, 
notice  the  abundance  of  pollen.  What  does  this  suggest?  Examine 
a  head  of  oats  to  learn  how  many  grains  in  each  spikelet  or  cluster ; 
which  one  is  the  larger ;  and  where  the  beards,  if  any,  start.  In  the 
same  way  examine  a  head  of  wheat.  Resolve  to  save  seeds  of  the  best 
plants  of  oats  or  wheat,  when  ripe,  for  a  seed-row  where  the  seeds  can 
be  improved  by  continued  selection  of  the  best  plants. 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  A  comparison  of  heads  (or  of  grains 
of  young  plants)  of  the  four  small-grains  will  suggest  many  points  of 
similarity  and  of  contrast.  Be  sure  to  give  practice  in  identifying  the 
plants  by  means  of  the  clasps.  If  any  of  the  small-grains  are  in  bloom, 
have  each  pupil  examine  a  flower  and  describe  the  stamens  and  pistils. 


SECTION   XXV.     COTTON 

Every  nation  depends  largely  upon  the  southern  part  of 
the  United  States  for  cotton.  The  Chinaman,  as  well  as 
the  Englishman,  is  clothed  in  American  cotton.  All 
classes  of  people,  from  beggars  to  princes,  make  use  of  it, 
and  the  world  is  continually  calling  for  more.  Foreign 
countries  send  more  gold  into  the  United  States  in  pay- 
ment for  our  cotton  than  for  any  other  American  crop. 


Fio.  92.  —  Cotton  Leaves 
a,  upland;  b,  Sea  Island. 


Fic.  93.  —  Cotton  Bolls 

a,  upland ;  b.  Sea  Island  ; 

c,  Indian. 


The  cotton  crop  of  the  Southern  states,  which  is  usually 
between  ii,cxx),cxx)  and  13,000,000  bales  per  year,  gen- 
erally sells  for  an  amount  between  ^600,000,000  and 
$750,000,000,  including  the  seed. 

The  next  largest  producer  of  cotton  is  India.  Most 
Indian  cotton,  however,  is  of  poorer  quality  and  lower 
price  than  the  American.  Egypt  stands  third  as  a  cot- 
ton-producing country.  Its  product  has  a  very  long 
staple,  and  sells  for  a  higher  price  than  American  cotton. 

«44 


COTTON 


145 


Some  of  it  is  imported  into  the  United  States  for  use  in 
making  goods  where  a  long  staple  is  required.  In  length, 
the  staple  of  Egyptian  is  between  that  of  American  long- 
staple  and  Sea  Island  cotton.  Egyptian  and  Indian 
cottons  are  not  nearly  so  productive  in  America  as  are 
the  varieties  generally  grown  in  the  Southern  states. 

The  cotton  plant.  —  Cotton  belongs  to  the  Mallow  family, 
which  includes  not  only  all  kinds  of  cotton,  but  also  okra, 
hollyhocks,  and  a  number  of  common  weeds  and  flowers. 

The  several  kinds  of  cotton  differ  greatly  in  their 
stalks,  leaves,  blooms,  and  lint.  In  tropical  countries,  cotton 
is  a  tree-like  plant,  not  dying  in  winter.  In  the  southern 
part  of  Texas  cotton  plants  springing  from 
roots  that  live  over  winter  are  troublesome 
because  they  give  food  to  the  cotton-boll 
weevil  early  in  the  spring. 

Why  cotton  makes  strong  thread  and 
cloth.  —  Cotton  is  popular  for  making 
thread,  cloth,  and  rope,  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  a  single  fiber  of  the  common 
kind  is  generally  not  over  one  inch  long. 
This  is  because  a  cotton  fiber  is  a  twisted, 
hollow  tube  (Fig.  94).  The  twist  makes 
the  separate  cotton  fibers  cling  tightly  to 
each  other,  just  as  two  chains  would  do  if 
twisted  together.  The  fibers  are  so  small 
that  1200  to  1500  of  them  could  be  laid  side  by  side  in  the 
space  of  one  inch. 

The  kinds  of  cotton  in  the  United  States.  —  There  are 
only  three   main  kinds   of  cotton   grown    in  the  United 


Fig.  94.  —  Fibers  or 
Strands  of  Cotton, 
enlarged 


146 


AGRICULTURE 


States.  These  are,  (i)  common  or  short-staple,  (2)  long- 
staple  upland,  and  (3)  Sea  Island  cotton.  Long-staple 
upland  cotton  resembles  common  cotton  very  much 
in  appearance  and  has  the  same  shape  of  leaf;  but 
its  bolls  are  usually  more  slender  and  the  lint  longer, 
usually  being  one  and  one  eighth  to  one  and  one  half  inches 


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Afiri  I'.  S.  Urpi  A<r. 

Fig.  95.  —  Where  Sea  Island  Cotton  grows 
Each  dot  stands  for  an  annual  yield  of  500  bales. 

long.  This  extra  length  makes  it  worth  several  cents  more 
per  pound.  However,  long-staple  cotton  is  not  so  produc- 
tive of  lint  as  the  best  varieties  of  short-staple  and  is  a  little 
later  in  maturing.  It  prefers  bottom  land.  Among  the 
popular  varieties  are  Allen,  Florodora,  and  Griffin. 

Sea  Island  cotton  is  a  tall,  slender  plant  with  branches, 
leaves,  and  blossoms  different  from  those  of  short-staple 


COTTON  147 

and  long-staple  upland  cotton.  The  lint  is  very  long  and 
fine,  and  commands  a  price  more  than  double  that  of  com- 
mon cotton.  There  is,  however,  much  less  lint  per  acre. 
Sea  Island  cotton  is  largely  grown  on  and  near  the  sea- 
coast  in  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Florida,  and  is  not  a 
profitable  crop  very  far  from  the  coast  (Fig.  95). 

Varieties  of  short-staple  upland  cotton. — There  are 
several  hundred  separate  names,  but  many  of  these  are 
merely  new  names  for  well-known  old  varieties.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  main  groups  of  varieties  :  — 

I.  Cluster. 

II.  Semi-cluster. 

III.  King  group. 

IV.  Peterkin  group. 
V.  Big-boll  group. 

The  cluster  varieties  bear  a  part  of  their  bolls  in  clusters, 
several  bolls  being  near  together,  and  many  near  the  main 
stem.  The  plant  is  slender  and  the  upper  limbs  very  short. 
A  well-known  cluster  variety  is  Jackson.  These  varieties 
drop  many  of  the  squares  or  blossoms  when  weather  or 
cultivation  is  unfavorable  (Fig.  97). 

Semi-cluster  varieties  resemble  cluster  varieties  in  shape 
of  plant,  but  the  bolls  are  not  borne  in  clusters.  The  mid- 
dle and  upper  limbs,  though  short,  are  a  little  longer  than 
in  the  cluster  varieties.  A  popular  semi-cluster  cotton  is 
Hawkins  (Fig.  98). 

The  King  group  consists  of  low  plants  with  numerous 
crooked  limbs  of  medium  length.  On  many  of  the  blossoms 
there  is  a  red  spot  near  the  base  of  each  petal  and  inside 


148  AGRICULTURE 

the  flower.  The  bolls  are  small.  This  is  the  earliest  well- 
known  American  kind,  and  hence  has  been  used  as  a  means 
of  insuring  a  crop  of  open  cotton  against  boll  weevils, 
which  become  numerous  late  in  the  season.  The  lint  is 
short  and  readily  falls  from  the  bolls.  The  early  varieties 
of  cotton,  and  indeed  of  most  crops,  are  not  usually  so 
productive  as  those  that  take  a  longer  time  to  complete 
their  growth  (Fig.  99). 

The  Peterkin  group  consists  of  varieties  having  small 
seed,  some  of  which  are  black  and  nearly  free  from  fuzz. 
A  quality  much  liked  about  this  variety  is  the  fact  that 
there  is  a  greater  weight  of  lint  in  proportion  to  seed  than 
usual.  For  example,  sometimes  as  much  as  37  to  40  per 
cent  of  the  seed-cotton  consists  of  lint,  so  that  a  full  bale 
(500  pounds)  is  often  made  from  only  1350  pounds  of  seed- 
cotton.  Among  the  best-known  varieties  are  Peterkin  and 
Layton.     Unfortunately,  the  bolls  are  small  (Fig.  102). 

The  big- boll  group  takes  its  name  from  the  large  size  of 
the  bolls.  It  requires  only  45  to  68  of  these  to  yield  one 
pound  of  seed-cotton.  Much  more  can  be  picked  in  a  day 
than  from  varieties  having  smaller  bolls.  Most  of  the  big- 
boll  varieties  are  late  in  maturing,  but  some  of  them  are 
medium  in  maturity.  This  group  needs  to  be  improved  by 
being  made  earlier,  and  by  an  increase  in  the  number  of 
bolls  per  plant.  Among  the  best  known  and  most  productive 
varieties  of  this  group  are  Russell  (which  has  large  g^een 
seed),  Truitt,  Cleveland,  and  Cook  Improved  (Fig.  101). 

Desirable  qualities.  —  The  ability  to  yield  the  greatest 
number  of  pounds  of  lint  cotton  per  acre  is  the  quality 
most  desired.     A  high  percentage  of  lint  is  often  a  means 


COTTON  149 

of  securing  this  large  yield  of  lint.  Large  bolls  are  very 
desirable,  since  they  make  picking  easier  and  quicker. 
Earliness  is  needed  in  the  northern  part  of  the  cotton 
belt  and  is  a  most  important  quality  wherever  the  boll 
weevil  is  present.  The  "  storm-proof  "  quality,  or  ability 
of  the  seed-cotton  to  cling  in  the  boll  rather  than  to  fall 
on  the  ground,  is  desirable,  if  it  does  not  go  to  the  point 
of  making  picking  very  difficult.  The  fiber  must  not  be 
very  short.  In  sandy  soils,  where  cotton-wilt  is  common, 
ability  to  live  in  spite  of  this  disease  is  an  important  char- 
acter that  has  been  developed  in  some  varieties,  as  Dixie, 
some  strains  of  Jackson,  and  certain  Sea  Island  varieties. 

Examples  of  very  satisfactory  varieties.  —  There  is  no 
one  variety  best  for  all  soils  and  seasons.  A  productive 
one  is  Cook  Improved.  This  has  rather  large  bolls,  a 
high  percentage  of  lint,  and  is  rather  early  for  a  big-boll 
kind.  Cleveland  is  another  productive  kind,  with  big 
bolls.  Both  of  these  have  the  disadvantage  of  easily  falling 
out  of  the  boll.  Cook  Improved  is  especially  liable  to  rot- 
ting of  the  bolls.  Almost  equally  productive  are  Toole  and 
Layton.  Both  have  a  high  percentage  of  lint,  but  small 
bolls.  For  earliness,  no  well-known  variety  stands  ahead 
of  King. 

The  varieties  most  extensively  grown  at  present  are 
probably  Peterkin,  Russell,  and  Truitt.  Triumph  is 
adapted  to  the  western  region,  where  the  boll  weevil  is 
present.  It  has  a  large  boll  and  a  high  percentage  of  lint. 
Generally  a  storm-proof  variety  is  preferred  in  Texas. 

Improving  or  breeding  cotton.  —  Even  in  a  pure  variety 
there  are  poor,  medium,  good,  and  very  good  plants,  though 


150 


AGRICULTURE 


all  may  have  had  an  equal  chance.  Hence,  it  is  very  easy 
to  improve  cotton  by  selecting  seed  from  the  best  plants. 
The  yield  of  lint  and  the  percentage  of  lint  in  the  seed- 
cotton  can  be  increased,  the  bolls  made  larger,  the  lint 
longer,  and  the  plants  earlier  or  shorter-jointed.  But  all 
of  these  cannot  be  attained  at  the  same  time.  It  is  best  to 
start  with  a  pure  variety  that  is  satisfactory  in  all  but  one 


/V-/.7/bs. 


m 


m 


/>A.-O.S/bs. 


P-S.3-/ba, 


m 


m 


A/-6/-/b3. 


Fic.  96.  —  Showing  Amounts  of  Nitrogen,  Phosphoric  Acid,  and  Potash 
removed  frou  the  soil  by  5oo  pounds  of  cotton  lint  and  looo 
Pounds  of  Seed 

Shaded  squares  indicate  the  small  amount  of  plant-food  in  the  lint;  unshaded 
squares  show  the  large  amount  in  the  seed. 


quality,  and  then  select  from  good  plants  that  make  the 
nearest  approach  to  this  desired  quality.  The  first  rule  in 
cotton-breeding  is  to  select  chiefly  for  one  quality  at  a  time 
and  to  keep  up  this  selection  for  the  same  quality  every  year. 
The  second  rule  is  to  keep  separate  the  seed  of  each  of 
the  best  twenty  or  more  mother  plants  and  to  grow  each 
in  a  separate  row  the  next  year.  The  seeds  from  the  best 
rows  should  be  saved.  Always  locate  the  breeding-patch 
as  far  from  other  cotton  as  possible.     Insects  carry  cotton 


COTTON 


151 


Fig.  97.  —  A  Cluster  Cotton  Plant 


Fig.  98. — A  Semi-cluster  Cotton 
Plant 


pollen  and  thus  mix  varieties,  but  not  to  the  same  extent 

that  the  wind  causes  the  mixing  of  varieties  of  corn.     As 

the    boll    weevil    spreads 

over    the    cotton    belt,    it 

becomes    more    important 

to  select  seed  from  plants 

that    form    their    bolls 

early. 

Preparation  of  land  and 
cultivation  of  cotton.  — 
Thorough  and  deep  prep- 
aration usually  pays. 
Cotton  comes  up  better  if 
the  harrow  is  used  to  pre- 

FiG.  99.  —  A  Cotton  Plant  of  the 
vent    the   formation   of    a  King  Type 


153 


AGRICULTURE 


crust  and  the  drying  of  the  land  during  the  few  weeks  before 

the  seeds  are 
planted.  Cot- 
ton is  planted 
as  soon  as  dan- 
ger of  frost  is 
past.  Cultiva- 
tion should  be 
shallow  and 
frequent,  and 
if  possible  af- 
ter rains  and 
before  a  crust 
would  form  on 
the  soil,  rather 
On  poor  land  the  rows  may  be 


Fig.  ioo.  —  A  Long-staple  Upland  Cotton  Plant 


than  at  regular  intervals, 
as  narrow  as  three  feet 
and  the  plants  as  close 
as  one  foot  apart.  As 
the  land  becomes  richer 
or  is  better  fertilized, 
the  space  for  each  plant 
must  be  increased,  be- 
cause the  limbs  grow 
longer.  On  rich  land 
the  rows  may  be  four 
feet  or  more  apart  and 
the  plants  about  two 
feet  from  each  other. 
Planting    cotton    in    checks    saves 


Fio.  loi.  —  A  Big-boll  Cottoh  Plant 


labor,    but    requires 


COTTON 


153 


good  or  well-fertilized  soil  and  nearly  level,  well-drained 
fields. 

The  fertilizer  for  cot- 
ton  is  usually  a  com- 
plete fertilizer  (Fig. 
96).  Generally  it  should 
contain  two  to  three 
times  as  much  phos- 
phoric acid  as  nitrogen 
or  potash.  On  soils 
where  cotton  rust  is 
usual    the     proportion 

of    potash    may    be    in-     fig.  102.  — The  Peterkin  type  of  Cotton 

creased.     If  the  plants  make  a  very  small  growth  on  any 
soil,  the  proportion  of  nitrogen  should  be  increased. 

Exercise.  —  Write  in  your  notebook  the  names  of  the  varieties  of 
cotton  grown  in  the  neighborhood.  Which  of  these  have  large  bolls? 
Small  bolls?  Long  staple?  Very  green  seed?  Partly  sleek  or  very 
dark  seed  ?  Small  seed  ?  Examine  ten  plants  or  even  ten  dead  cotton 
stalks  and  notice  how  widely  they  differ.  Would  there  be  any  advan- 
tage in  selecting  seed  from  uniform  plants?  Decide  which  kind  of  plant 
you  would  select  from.  Why  ?  When  the  next  cotton  crop  is  mature,  be- 
gin to  select  and  improve  cotton  by  the  method  described  in  this  section. 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  If  possible,  make  one  or  more  excursions 
into  the  cotton  fields.  Bend  every  effort  to  make  the  pupil  see  more  in 
a  cotton  plant  than  ever  before ;  for  example,  variations  in  leaves  and 
bolls  on  the  same  plant,  ribs  of  leaves,  the  relation  between  earliness 
and  form  of  plant,  etc.  If  this  lesson  is  studied  after  the  stalks  have 
been  plowed  under,  let  the  practice  be  largely  a  study  of  the  seed,  — 
sizes,  colors,  fuzz,  shape,  hull  and  kernel,  germination,  etc.  Dampen 
seeds  slightly  with  extremely  thin  flour  paste,  stir,  then  dry.  Do  the 
seeds  stick  together?  What  is  the  practical  advantage  of  this  treat- 
ment in  planting?  Advise  pupils  to  try  it  at  home  on  a  bushel  of  seed, 
using  one  cup  of  flour  in  two  quarts  of  water. 


SECTION   XXVI.     SUGAR  CANE 

Sugar  cane  and  corn  both  belong  to  the  grass  family. 
Safely  hidden  under  the  clasping  or  tube-like  lower 
portion  of  each  leaf  are  buds  or  eyes,  one  at  each  joint. 
These  serve  instead  of  seed  to  multiply  the  plant. 

When  a  stalk  of  sugar  cane  is  planted,  the  moist,  warm 
soil  causes  the  buds  to  grow  into  young  sprouts,  which  for 
a  little  while  feed  on  the  juice  of  the  mother  cane. 

Roots  and  suckers.  —  At  each  bud  or  eye  and  extending 
entirely  around  the  stalk  are  several  rows  of  small,  whitish 
dots.  If  cane  is  planted  and  a  few  weeks  later  dug  up, 
it  will  be  found  that  the  roots  have  grown  out  from  these 
spots. 

Unfortunately  these  dots,  especially  in  some  varieties, 
also  throw  out  roots  when  the  cane  is  blown  down  and  lies 
touching  the  damp  ground.  Roots  from  the  joints  above 
ground  are  not  wanted.  In  a  row  where  only  one  con- 
tinuous line  of  cane  has  been  planted,  there  may  be 
single  hills  from  each  of  which  three  or  more  canes  may 
grow.  The  first  grew  from  the  bud ;  the  others  from 
buds  on  the  base  of  the  young  cane.  Stalks  that  grow 
from  a  bud  on  a  young  plant,  rather  than  directly  from 
a  bud  on  the  planted  cane,  are  called  suckers.  Suckers 
that  start  early  add  to  the  yield,  but  those  that  form  late 
are  useless. 

»54 


SUGAR   CANE  1 55 

The  plant  changed  by  climate.  —  Sugar  cane,  like  cotton, 
first  grew  in  countries  warmer  than  the  Southern  states. 
Like  cotton  also,  it  has  greatly  changed  its  habit  of  growth 
as  it  has  been  carried  northward.  In  the  tropics  it  con- 
tinues to  grow  fifteen  months  or  more  before  being  cut. 

In  Louisiana  the  tops  cannot  live  through  the  winter, 
but  the  stubble  and  roots  remain  alive  and  furnish  a  supply 
of  shoots  for  a  second  and  sometimes  for  a  third  crop. 
Planting,  therefore,  is  necessary  only  every  second  or  third 
year.  Only  once  in  a  number  of  years  is  planting  neces- 
sary in  tropical  countries.  In  the  central  part  of  the  Gulf 
states,  and  farther  north,  the  roots  usually  do  not  live 
through  the  winter,  so  that  stalks  of  cane  have  to  be 
planted  every  year. 

Varieties  of  sugar  cane.  —  Sugar  cane  forms  seeds  in 
very  warm  countries,  but  not  in  the  Southern  states.  The 
chief  use  of  these  seeds  is  to  start  new  varieties.  Plants 
grown  from  seeds  are  more  unlike  their  parents  than  are 
plants  grown  from  buds.  When  a  seedling  is  better  than 
its  parent,  it  is  prized  as  a  new  variety  and  is  increased  by 
planting  canes  (Fig.  103). 

The  variety  most  generally  grown  is  the  red  or  purple 
cane,  so  named  from  the  color  of  the  stem.  The  striped 
or  ribbon  cane  that  is  sometimes  grown  is  so  named  be- 
cause it  is  streaked  with  irregular  stripes  of  white.  Green 
cane  is  also  grown  to  some  extent.  Some  of  the  newer 
varieties  introduced  by  the  Louisiana  Experiment  Station 
are  proving  superior  to  all  of  the  old  varieties  and  are  dis- 
placing them  in  Louisiana.  Japanese  cane  is  one  of  the 
hardiest  varieties  and  can  be  grown  for  syrup  farther  north 


156 


AGRICULTURE 


C<Nirto«7  La.  Agr.  Ezp<.  Matioa 

Fio.  103.  —  Sugar  Cane  grown  from  Seed 
In  this  way  new  varieties  originate. 

than  the  other  kinds.  It  throws  up  many  slender  canes  or 
suckers  from  every  joint.  It  is  sometimes  profitably  used 
as  a  food  for  hogs  and  other  live-stock. 

Since  sugar  cane  grows  from  the  succulent  buds  on  the 


SUGAR  CANE 


157 


canes  planted,  these  buds  must  be  kept  through  the  winter  in 
such  condition  that  they  will  neither  freeze,  dry,  nor  shrivel. 
In  Louisiana  a  part  of  the  cane  is  planted  in  the  fall,  the 


Courtesy  La.  Agr.  Ezpt.  Stetion 

Fig.  104.  —  Planting  Sugar  Cane  in  Louisiana 

soil  protecting  the  buds  until  the  warm,  growing  weather 
in  the  spring,  when  another  part  of  the  crop  is  planted. 
In  the  fall  the  canes  intended  for  planting  in  the  spring 
are  placed  with  their  leaves  overlapping  like  shingles  in 


158  AGRICULTURE 

the  water  furrow  of  certain  rows  and  covered  with  earth. 
In  the  spring  these  are  taken  up  and  planted  (Fig.  104). 
Farther  north  cane  for  planting  is  kept  over  winter  in 
beds  or  heaps  covered  with  earth.  In  these  cooler  re- 
gions it  is  usual  to  dig,  rather  than  to  cut,  cane  intended 
for  planting. 

Preparation  and  cultivation.  —  In  Louisiana  a  field  to  be 
planted  in  cane  the  ne.xt  year  is  planted  this  year  in  corn, 
and  cowpeas  are  sown  thickly  among  the  corn.  The  en- 
tire growth  of  cowpeas  is  turned  under  by  the  use  of  im- 
mense plows.  This  enriches  the  land  by  furnishing  vege- 
table matter  and  nitrogen.  Sugar  cane  is  then  grown  on 
that  field  two  or  three  years.  On  the  sandy  soils  of  the 
southern  portion  of  Georgia  and  Alabama,  a  crop  of  velvet 
bean  vines  is  sometimes  plowed  under  to  enrich  the  soil 
for  the  succeeding  crop  of  sugar  cane. 

On  the  stiff  soils  of  the  sugar  cane  plantations  of  Louisi- 
ana the  main  need  is  drainage.  The  land  there  is  plowed 
into  high  ridges  5  to  6  feet  wide,  and  rather  deep  parallel 
ditches  are  dug  a  few  rods  apart.  In  other  states  sugar 
cane  is  grown  chiefly  on  sandy  bottom  land.  North  of 
the  sugar  belt  the  cane  is  planted  early  in  spring,  using 
either  a  single  or  a  double  line  of  canes  in  each  row. 
Cultivation  must  be  shallow  and  frequent. 

Soils  and  fertilizers  for  sugar  cane.  —  Every  green  leaf 
throws  off  into  the  air  moisture  brought  up  from  the  soil. 
Hence  to  supply  enough  water  for  such  a  large  leaf  sur- 
face as  a  cane  field  presents,  the  soil  must  be  well  sup- 
plied with  moisture.  No  common  crop  needs  more  water. 
Bottom   lands,  therefore,  are   generally    best    for    cane. 


SUGAR   CANE 


159 


They  must  be  naturally  rich  or  made  so  by  plowing  under 
a  crop  of  cowpeas,  velvet  beans,  or  other  leguminous 
plant. 

On  lands  not  very  rich,  commercial  fertilizers  are  profit- 
ably applied   for   the   growing  of   sugar   cane.     A   ferti- 


Courteay  La.  Agr.  Expt.  Station 

Fig.  105.  —  Cutting  Sugar  Cane  in  Louisiana 


lizer  for  this  crop  should  be  rich  in  nitrogen,  and  should 
usually  contain  also  phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  Four 
hundred  to  seven  hundred  pounds  or  more  of  a  com- 
plete commercial  fertilizer  is  an  ordinary  amount  for  an 
acre. 


l60  AGRICULTURE 

Yields  of  sugar  cane.  —  In  Hawaii,  where  the  canes  are 
allowed  to  grow  much  longer  than  in  the  United  States 
before  being  cut,  the  yield  has  been  as  high  as  lOO  tons 
of  cane  per  acre.  Irrigation  is  largely  responsible  for  the 
large  yields  in  those  islands.  This  greatly  increases  the 
yield  on  well-drained  laud  in  the  Southern  states.  A 
good  average  yield  for  an  entire  sugar  estate  in  Louisi- 
ana is  20  to  30  tons  per  acre ;  for  sandy  pine  lands,  1 5  to 
20  tons.  A  good  yield  of  syrup  is  from  300  to  600  gal- 
lons per  acre.  Large  steam  mills  press  the  juice  from 
the  cane  much  more  completely  than  do  the  small  mills 
worked  by  horse  power.  The  large  plantations  are  equipped 
with  very  large  and  expensive  mills. 

Making  syrup.  —  The  usual  outfit  for  a  small  cane  mill 
and  evaporator  is  not  expensive.  The  evaporator  is  a 
large  shallow  pan  with  a  copper  bottom.  In  this  the  juice 
is  boiled  until  thick  enough  for  syrup.  It  is  usually 
placed  just  above  a  fijrnace.  Sometimes  boiling  is  done 
by  steam  carried  through  coils  of  pipes  laid  in  the  bottom 
of  the  usual  evaporator  pan. 

Even  experienced  syrup-makers  can  make  a  more  uni- 
form article  by  placing  in  a  bottle  of  the  hot  syrup  a 
simple  instrument  (Baum6  hydr6m'eter)  for  showing  how 
thick  it  is.  When  this  sinks  to  a  point  between  the  marks 
34  and  35  degrees  on  the  instrument,  the  boiling  is 
stopped. 

To  prevent  a  part  of  the  syrup  turning  to  sugar,  it  may 
be  put  in  cans  or  jugs  while  still  very  hot  and  tightly 
sealed  to  exclude  the  air.  The  heat  kills  the  germs  and 
thus  keeps  the  syrup  from  fermenting. 


SUGAR   CANE 


i6i 


Exercise.  —  If  growing  sugar  cane  or  stubble  is  available,  ask 
permission  to  examine  it.  Notice  location  of  bud.s,  "  root  dots,"  point 
where  suckers  originate,  position  of  leaves,  etc. 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  In  regions  where  sugar  cane  is  one  of 
the  chief  crops,  it  will  be  well  for  the  teacher  to  write  for  bulletins  on 
sugar  cane  to  Louisiana  Experiment  Station,  Baton  Rouge.  Selections 
from  these  may  well  be  read  to  the  class. 


Fig.  io6.  —  Hauling  Cane  from  the  Fields 
On  large  plantations,  the  cane  may  now  be  handled  largely  by  machinery. 


SECTION  XXVII.     SWEET   POTATOES 

Sweet  potatoes.  —  This  is  another  of  the  crops  that  grow 
from  buds  instead  of  from  seeds.  These  buds  can  be  seen 
after  the  potato  has  been  kept  moist  and  warm  for  a  num- 
ber of  days.  Sweet  potatoes  are  placed  in  a  potato  bed 
to  make  the  buds  grow  into  shoots,  which  are  called  slips. 
The  bed  is  made  warm  by  spreading  a  layer  of  manure  on 
the  ground  and  covering  this  with  a  few  inches  of  soil. 
The  potatoes  are  pressed  into  the  soft  earth  and  covered 
with  another  layer  of  soil.  As  the  manure  rots  or  ferments 
it  forms  heat,  which  warms  the  soil  above. 

The  bed  should  be  made  about  six  or  seven  weeks  before 
the  time  when  the  slips  are  to  be  placed  in  the  field. 

Setting  the  slips.  —  When  there  is  danger  of  frost,  the 
bed  must  be  covered.  After  all  danger  has  passed  or  after 
the  time  when  cotton  comes  up,  the  slips  are  gently  pulled 
from  the  mother  potato  and  transplanted  to  the  field. 
They  are  usually  placed  about  two  feet  apart  in  rows  or 
beds  three  to  four  feet  wide.  They  must  be  quickly  put 
into  the  ground  so  that  their  roots  may  not  dry. 

If  the  soil  is  dry,  a  little  water  should  be  poured  around 
each  slip,  thus  settling  the  earth  about  its  roots.  Then  be 
sure  to  cover  the  wet  spot  with  a  layer  of  dry  soil,  so  that 
the  water  added  may  not  pass  off  into  the  air.  After  the 
slips  have  made  vines  more  than  two  feet  long,  these  may 

162 


SWEET   POTATOES  1 63 

be  cut  off  in  sections  about  eight  inches  long  and  planted. 
Press  the  middle  of  the  cut  vine  into  the  soil. 

Varieties.  — The  flowers  of  the  sweet  potato  are  large  and 
pretty,  very  similar  to  a  morning-glory.  They  do  not  of- 
ten form,  however.  If  perfect  seeds  develop,  these,  when 
planted,  start  new  varieties,  some  of  which  may  be  better 
than  the  parent  variety. 


PUMPKIN    YAM  YCULOW   YAM. 

Fig.  107.  —  One  Form  of  Sweet  Fig.  108.  —  Another  Form  of 

Potato  Leaf  Sweet  Potato  Leaf 

There  are  a  number  of  varieties.  These  differ  in  flavor, 
earliness,  yield,  shape  of  leaf  (Figs.  107,  108),  and  length  of 
vines.  Southern  consumers  like  those  which,  when  cooked, 
become  soft  and  very  sweet.  Among  such  varieties  are  the 
Sugar  Yam  and  the  Dooley.  For  shipping  to  Northern 
markets  a  grower  must  select  varieties  having  a  firm  and 
mealy  character  when  cooked. 

Fertilizers  for  sweet  potatoes.  —  The  sweet  potato  needs 
a  complete  fertilizer.  There  is  not  much  danger  of  having 
the  land  too  rich,  provided  enough  phosphate  and  potash 
are  used  to  balance  the  nitrogen  that  may  be  in  the  rich  soil. 

Sweet  potatoes  need  to  be  cultivated  often  enough  to 


1 64  AGRICULTURE 

keep  down  weeds  and  to  check  the  evaporation  of  moisture. 
If  the  beds  arc  thrown  up  very  high,  they  dry  out  rapidly 
and  make  the  crop  smaller.  Several  diseases  attack  sweet 
potatoes,  and  the  germs  that  cause  them  remain  in  the  soil. 
Hence  sweet  potatoes  ought  not  to  be  grown  on  the  land 
where  a  diseased  crop  grew  the  year  before. 

Storing.  —  Sweet  potatoes  must  be  dug  before  frost  or 
immediately  after  the  first  frost.  The  utmost  care  should 
be  taken  in  handling  them  to  prevent  bruises.  Cuts  and 
bruises  admit  germs,  which  cause  rotting. 

Sweet  potatoes  are  generally  stored  in  banks  under 
shelter.  They  are  heaped  on  straw  or  leaves  on  a  well- 
drained  spot.  Straw,  hay,  or  corn  stalks  are  placed  in  a 
thin  layer  around  the  heap.  A  covering  of  earth  nearly 
to  the  top  of  the  pile  is  then  put  on,  leaving  the  extreme 
top  of  the  pile  uncovered  with  earth  for  better  ventilation. 
When  freezing  weather  threatens,  the  top  of  the  pile 
should  be  covered  more  completely. 

A  house  built  for  the  purpose  of  storing  is  more  satis- 
factory for  large  amounts  of  sweet  potatoes.  It  should 
have  double  walls,  filled  in  with  sawdust.  There  should  be 
slatted  bins,  open  on  all  sides,  ventilators  for  the  house, 
and  a  stove  for  heating  and  drying  the  air  when  needed. 

Exercise.  —  E>(amine  an  Irish  and  a  sweet  potato.  Do  the  roots 
extend  through  and  beyond  the  sweet  potato  ?  Beyond  the  Irish  potato  ? 
Which  of  these  is  a  true  root? 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  If  this  lesson  is  studied  before  frost, 
pupils  should  bring  in  sweet  potato  leaves  for  comparison  and  for  draw- 
ing. If  sweet  potatoes  are  extensively  grown  in  your  neighborhood, 
write  to  Experiment  Stations  and  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Washington,  D.C.,  for  bulletins  on  that  crop. 


SECTION   XXVIII.      PEANUTS   AND 
WATERMELONS 

Peanuts. — The  soil  should  be  loose,  sandy,  and  well 
prepared.  It  need  not  be  very  rich,  because  the  peanut  is 
a  legume  and  therefore  gets  its  nitrogen  from  the  air.  It 
must,  however,  get  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  from  the 
soil  or  from  fertilizers.  If  fertilizers  are  not  obtainable, 
wood  ashes  may  be  used.  The  newly  burnt  ashes  from 
oak  and  hickory  are  richer  than  those  from  pine  wood. 
Lime  often  increases  the  yield  of  peanuts  and  its  use  is 
believed  to  reduce  the  number  of  "pops,"  or  empty  hulls. 

Shell  the  peanuts  without  spUtting  the  two  halves  of  the 
kernel  and  plant  after  cotton  comes  up  in  a  place  where 
the  chickens  and  pigs  cannot  get  them.  The  plant  forms 
its  nuts  by  sticking  its  sharp,  needle-like  pistils  into  the 
ground.     The  seeds  are  borne  underground. 

The  peanut  is  an  important  sale  crop  in  Virginia,  North 
Carolina,  and  Tennessee.  It  is  grown  for  home  use  and 
for  hog  food  throughout  the  cotton  belt.  A  good  yield 
is  40  to  60  bushels  per  acre.  Peanuts  for  planting  should 
be  hand-picked,  so  that  only  sound  seed  may  be  planted. 

Peanuts  should  be  dug  as  soon  as  mature,  and  cured  in 
rather  tall  slender  shocks  (Fig.  109).  The  peanut  makes 
the  land  rich  if  the  vines  are  allowed  to  decay  in  the 
ground. 

165 


l66  AGRICULTURE 

There  are  two  principal  kinds  of  peanuts,  the  Spanish  and 
the  running.  The  Spanish  variety  has  short,  upright  stems 
and  small  nuts,  which  are  firmly  attached  to  the  plant. 
The  running  peanuts  have  larger  nuts  and  require  more 
labor  in  harvesting. 

Watef melons.  —  Every  Southern  farm  needs  its  water- 
melon patch  for  producing  melons  for  home  consumption. 
The  watermelon  is  also  an  important  sale  crop.  From 
some  localities  thousands  of  car  loads  are  shipped  each 
year.  Varieties  for  shipping  should  have  a  firm  rind, 
which  often  accompanies  rather  inferior  quality.  For 
home  use  there  are  numbers  of  good  varieties. 

The  watermelon  likes  a  warm,  sandy,  well-drained  soil. 
If  the  soil  is  poor,  manure  should  be  freely  used.  The 
field  should  be  thoroughly  plowed  and  then  marked  off  into 
checks  lo  by  lo  or  lo  by  8  feet.  Where  these  check  fur- 
rows cross,  work  into  the  soil  one  or  two  shovelfuls  of 
well-rotted  compost,  made  of  manure  and  wood  mold 
or  of  manure  and  cotton  seed.  On  the  manure,  sprinkle 
a  handful  of  complete  commercial  fertilizer  or  guano. 
With  a  hoe  mark  two  trenches  one  inch  deep  across 
each  hill.  Plant  at  least  six  seeds  in  one  of  the  trenches. 
A  week  later  plant  a  like  number  in  the  other  trench  in 
each  hill.  Thus  if  frost  kills  the  earlier  plants  there 
will  be  later  ones  to  take  their  place. 

Thin  to  two  plants  in  a  hill  and  cultivate  shallow,  fre- 
quently, and  in  both  directions.  Avoid  unnecessary  mov- 
ing of  the  vines,  or  cultivation  while  the  leaves  are  wet 
Before  cultivation  ceases  sow  a  row  of  cowpeas  between 
the  rows  of  watermelon  hills. 


PEANUTS   AND   WATERMELONS 


167 


Do  not  plant  watermelons  for  more  than  one  year  on  or 
near  the  same  field.  A  very  fatal  disease,  watermelon  wilt, 
is  especially  liable  to  attack  watermelons  planted  on  land 
on  which  the  same  crop  has  recently  grown.  Where  this 
disease  occurs,  it  may  be  necessary  to  fertilize  only  with 
wood  mold  and  commercial  fertilizers,  omitting  the  manure. 
This  is  because  manure  frequently  contains  and  carries 
the  germs  of  the  disease.  Wilt-resistant  varieties  of  water- 
melons are  now  being  perfected. 

Exercise.  —  When  peanuts  begin  next  season  to  form  nuts,  examine 
them  carefully  and  find  the  flower,  the  pistil,  and  the  seed.  Notice  the 
position  of  the  leaves  of  peanuts  at  night.  Are  there  tubercles  on  the 
roots  of  peanuts  ?  Are  they  as  large  as  those  on  the  roots  of  cowpeas  ? 
Is  any  of  the  soil  from  the  field  where  peanuts  last  grew  brought  to  the 
new  peanut  field  ? 

When  watermelons  bloom,  notice  the  difference  between  the  pistillate 
and  the  staminate  flowers. 


Fig.  109.  —  Peanuts  or  Goobers  drying  in  Shocks 


SECTION   XXIX.      LEGUMES   AND 
INOCULATION 

In  former  times  learned  men  thought  that  mankind 
would  finally  starve  to  death  because  there  is  not  enough 
nitrogen  in  the  ground  to  produce  food  suflficient  to  feed 
the  growing  population  of  the  world.  There  is  no  longer 
any  fear  of  this,  for  it  is  known  that  certain  plants  called 
legumes  can  make  use  of  the  limitless  amounts  of  nitrogen 
in  the  air.  There  are  about  36,000  tons  of  this  nitrogen 
gas  in  the  air  above  every  acre.  Yet  cotton,  corn,  wheat, 
and  most  plants  cannot  use  a  pound  of  this  nitrogen  gas 
until  legumes  have  changed  it  into  fertilizer  nitrogen.  Any 
of  the  legumes,  for  example,  the  cowpea  or  clover,  by  the 
aid  of  the  tubercles  on  its  roots  (Fig.  112),  can  grow  on 
ground  where  cotton,  corn,  or  wheat  would  starve  for  want 
of  nitrogen.  Not  only  do  legumes  get  from  the  air  enough 
nitrogen  to  enable  them  to  make  luxuriant  growth  on  a 
poor  field,  but  they  also  enrich  the  soil  with  a  part  of  this 
nitrogen.  When  the  roots  and  fallen  leaves  decay,  the 
nitrogen  in  them  is  added  to  the  soil.  Still  more  is  added 
if  the  stems  and  leaves,  as  well  as  the  roots,  are  left  on  the 
field  where  the  plants  grew.  That  crops  often  grow  much 
larger  after  a  legume  is  shown  in  Fig.  1 10. 

Each  germ  grows  only  on  the  kind  of  plant  to  which  it 
is  accustomed.  —  Every  tubercle  on  the  roots  of  legumes  is 

168 


LEGUMES   AND   INOCULATION 


169 


inhabited  by  thousands  of  useful  germs,  or  plants  too 
small  to  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye.  When  the  tubercle 
decays,  these  germs  are  set  free,  and  spread  through  the 


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Fig.  1 10.  —  Sorghum  from  Equal  Areas 

In  center,  fertilized  with  rye;  on  left,  with  vetch,  entire 

growth ;  on  right,  with  vetch  stubble. 

soil  by  means  of  water.     These  little  workmen  are  alive. 
They  must  wait  until  the  same  kind  of  legume  is  planted 


170 


AGRICULTURE 


there  again.    As  soon  as  a  clover  plant  throws  out  roots,  the 
clover  germs  attach  themselves  to  the  root,  multiply  rapidly, 

and  form  a  tubercle.  Strange  to 
say,  clover  germs  will  not  grow 
on  cowpea  roots.  Perhaps  this 
is  because  the  clover  germ   has 


Fig.  III.  —  Red  Clovek 

I,  inoculated;  a,  not 

inoculated. 


become  accustomed  to  liv- 
ing on  the  special  kind  of 
food  it  finds  in  clover  sap, 
and  perhaps  the  diet  the 
cowpea  or  alfalfa  offers 
does  not  agree  with  it.  If  a 
fertilizer  factory  is  started, 
it  must  be  by  germs  accus- 
tomed to  work  on  that  kind 
of  plant  or  on  one  very 
closely  akin  to  it.  Clover 
germs  make  tubercles  on 
clover,  alfalfa  germs  cause 
nodules  on  alfalfa,  vetch 
germs  organize  fertilizer 
factories  on  the  roots  of 
vetch,  and  so  on. 

Inoculation  of  leguminous 
crops.  —  If  a  farmer,  there- 
fore, desires  to  grow  clover 


Fig.  112.  —  Roots  or  Soy  Bean, 

INOCtTLATKD 


LEGUMES   AND    INOCULATION 


171 


on  a  soil  where  there  have  been  no  clover  tubercles,  he 
must  place  the  clover  germs  there  (Fig.  iii).  He  can  do 
this  by  sowing  in  that  place  soil  from  a  field  where  clover 
has  turned  loose  its  millions  of  germs.  If  he  wishes  to 
grow  alfalfa,  he  must  likewise  sow  on  the  new  field  soil 
from  an  old  alfalfa  field. 
Inoculation  is  the  name 
given  to  this  placing  of 
the  proper  germs  where 
.  they  can  form  tubercles. 
To  inoculate  a  legume  is 
to  bring  the  proper  germs 
to  its  roots  (Figs.  112,  113, 
114). 

How  to  inoculate  leg- 
umes.—  Legumes  can  be  in- 
oculated in  several  ways, 
(.1)  by  sowing  soil,  (2)  by 
dipping  the  seed  in  water 
mixed  with  this  soil,  or  (3)' 
by  mixing  the  seed  with 
a  special  preparation  made 
originally  from  ground-up  tubercles  of  a  plant  like  that 
to  be  grown. 

Using  the  proper  soil.  —  This  is  a  reliable  method  of 
inoculating  the  soil.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  use  soil 
that  has  in  it  seeds  of  bad  weeds  or  that  contains  the  germs 
of  serious  plant  diseases.  Promptly  cover  inoculated  seed 
or  soil  used  for  inoculating  legumes,  for  much  sunshine 
will  kill  the  germs. 


Fig.  113.  —  Roots  of  Soy  Bean, 
not  inoculated 


172 


AGRICULTURE 


Legumes  that  need  inoculation.  —  There  are  or  have  been 

tubercles  on  nearly 
every  cowpea  plant 
found  in  the  region 
where  cotton  grows. 
Cowpea  plants  in  the 
North,  however,  have 
no  tubercles  where 
this  crop  is  but  little 
grown.  In  the  South- 
ern states,  where  cow- 
peas  are  generally 
grown,  the  wind  has 
blown  the  germs  into 
almost  every  field. 
However,  in  most 
sandy  soils  in  the 
South,  where  crimson 
clover,  vetch,  and  al- 
falfa are  seldom 
grown,  the  farmer 
will  need  to  inoculate 
the  seed  of  these  three 
very      useful     plants. 

Figs.   Ill,  114   show   how  inoculation   often    helps  these 

rarely  grown  legumes. 


Fic.  114. — Crimson  Clover,  thk  Same 

Number  or  Plants  in  Each  Bundle 

On  right,  inoculated;  on  left,  not  inoculated. 

Grown  at  Ala.  Agr.  Expt.  Station. 


Exercises.  —  Ask  your  parents  to  tell  you  how  much  their  crops 
are  usually  increased  by  a  preceding  crop  of  cowjjeas  or  clover. 

Examine  every  leguminous  plant  you  can  find.  Make  drawings  of 
tubercles  on  some  of  the  leguminous  plants  you  find. 


LEGUMES   AND   INOCULATION 


173 


Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  Much  time  can  here  be  given  to  a  study 
of  the  tubercles  on  different  plants.  Assign  drawings  from  nature  of 
the  tubercles  on  several  legumes,  as  on  garden  pea,  clover,  and  on  any 
others  that  may  be  available.  Write  to  your  state  Experiment  Station 
and  to  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  at  Washington 
for  any  bulletins  on  soil-improving  plants  ;  also  ask  that  the  library  of 
your  school  be  put  on  their  permanent  mailing  lists,  so  that  the  school 
may  receive  their  future  publications. 


Fig.  115.  —  Nodules  on  Winter  or  Hairy  Vetch 


SECTION  XXX.     SOME   FORAGE   PLANTS 

Cowpea.  —  There  are  more  than  a  score  of  varieties  of 
cowpeas.  Some,  like  the  Speckled,  grow  almost  upright, 
make  a  good  crop  of  seed,  and  are  easy  to  mow.  Others 
make  long  runners  that  sometimes  lie  almost  flat  on  the 
ground  and  are  hard  to  mow  because  they  tangle.  Still 
others,  like  the  New  Era,  make  ripe  pods  so  quickly  that  two 
crops  of  them  can  be  made  in  the  Gulf  states  in  one  year, 
by  sowing  the  second  crop  with  seed  ripened  by  the  first 
crop  in  July.  This  is  helpful  when  seed  for  planting  is 
scarce.  Bushy,  upright  cowpeas  form  "runners"  and 
tangle,  if  the  seed  is  sown  very  early.  Late  sowing,  say 
in  July,  makes  the  branches,  or  "  runners,"  of  a  running 
variety  shorter. 

Cowpeas  may  be  planted  at  any  time  in  May  or  June 
and  even  later.  Almost  every  acre  of  corn  ought  to  have 
cowpeas  sown  between  the  rows,  so  as  to  enrich  the  land. 
After  oats  and  wheat  are  cut,  cowpeas  should  be  sown  on 
the  stubble  land  either  to  be  used  for  hay,  for  grazing,  or 
only  for  fertilizer.  In  corn  fields  and  when  sown  alone, 
cowpeas  may  be  sown  either  broadcast  or  in  drills.  The 
fertilizer  most  frequently  needed  is  acid  phosphate,  or  on 
some  very  sandy  soils  both  phosphate  and  potash. 

Crimson  clover.  —  This  plant  (Fig.  114)  is  as  useful  as 
it  is  beautiful.  It  prevents  leaching  and  loss  of  fertility 
in  winter.     It  adds  to  the  soil  about  as  much  nitrogen  as 

»74 


SOME   FORAGE  PLANTS  1 75 

does    a    crop    of    cowpeas.     About    the    latter    part    of 

April,  the  richest  kind  of  hay  can  be  made  from  it.     This 

will  take   the  place  of   part   of   the   corn   that   so   many 

farmers  buy  for  thejr  teams. 

As  soon  as  the  hay  is  cut, 

corn  or   sorghum   or  sweet 

potatoes  or  other  late  crop 

may  be  planted  to  fatten  on 

the  nitrogen  which  the  clover 

roots  and  stubble  have  added 

to  the  soil. 

Crimson  clover  is  very  easy 
to  grow.  Land  that  has  just 
grown  cotton  does  not  even 
have  to  be  plowed.  A  little 
more  than  a  peck  of  seed  per  ^^°-  "^-  —Hairy  Vetch 

acre  may  be  sown  broadcast  in  the  cotton  in  September 
and  covered  by  passing  a  one-horse  cultivator  between 
each  pair  of  rows.  It  is  easy  to  fail  with  crimson  clover 
if  the  land  is  not  inoculated.  To  inoculate  land  for  crim- 
son clover,  sow  with  the  seed  soil  from  a  field  where 
crimson  clover,  red  clover,  low  white  clover,  or  other  true 
clover  has  grown. 

Vetches.  —  These  plants  (Figs.  115,  116)  have  slender 
stems  or  branches,  too  weak  to  stand  alone.  Hence  they 
need  to  be  sown  with  oats  or  wheat,  so  that  the  weak  vines 
may  climb  up  the  grain  plants  and  be  high  enough  for 
mowing  in  May.  Vetches  are  useful  for  hay,  for  pasturage, 
and  for  enriching  the  soil.  Hairy  vetch  is  the  most  popular 
kind.     The  seed  should  be  sown  broadcast  about  Septem- 


176  AGRICULTURE 

ber,  2  to  4  pecks  of  vetch  seed  per  acre  being  mixed  with 
the  usual  amount  of  seed  of  wheat  or  oats.  Vetch  has  an 
advantage  over  crimson  clover,  for,  unlike  clover,  it  can 
re-seed  the  land.  If  the  farmer  will  let  vetch  plants  form 
seed,  these  seed,  dropped  in  May,  will  remain  sound  in  the 
ground  all  summer  while  a  crop  of  cowpeas  or  sorghum  is 
growing  on  the  field.  In  the  fall  they  sprout  and  grow 
without  requiring  that  the  land  be  plowed.  To  make  sure 
that  seeds  are  dropped  on  the  ground,  vetch  should  not  be 
closely  grazed  after  the  middle  of  April  in  the  Gulf  states. 
If  it  is  mixed  with  an  early  variety  of  beardless  wheat,  the 
hay  may  be  mown  so  early  that  enough  second  growth  of 
vetch  will  afterwards  be  made  to  mature  seed.  Vetch  may 
be  inoculated  either  with  soil  from  a  field  of  any  kind  of 
vetch  or  with  soil  from  a  spot  where  garden  peas  have 
grown.  This  is  because  vetch  and  garden  peas  are  very 
closely  related. 

Alfalfa.  —  This  is  a  clover-like  legume,  the  roots  of  which 
may  live  for  many  years.  Alfalfa  seed  may  be  sown  in 
the  cotton  belt  either  early  in  the  fall  or  early  in  the 
spring.  Three  to  five  cuttings  of  hay  can  be  made  each 
year.  It  is,  therefore,  the  most  valuable  of  all  forage 
plants  for  soils  that  suit  it.  Unfortunately,  it  does  not 
generally  do  well  in  most  sandy  soils  in  the  Southern  states. 
Sometimes  fertile,  sandy  land  will  grow  it  well  if  the  farmer 
can  get  rid  of  the  seeds  of  crab  grass  and  weeds,  and  if  he 
uses  much  lime,  besides  manure  or  fertilizer.  Favorite 
soils  for  alfalfa  are  the  stiff,  waxy  lime  lands  of  Alabama, 
Mississippi,  and  Texas,  and  stiff,  rich,  but  well-drained 
river  bottom  lands. 


SOME   FORAGE   PLANTS 


177 


One  of  the  worst  enemies  of  alfalfa  is  love  vine  or  dodder. 
This  is  a  vine  like  the  one  that  twines  around  blackberries 
and  weeds  in  swampy  places.  Dodder  seeds  are  bought 
with  the  poorer  grades  of  alfalfa  seed.     It  ruins  alfalfa 


Fig.  117.  —  Red  Clover 
On  the  left  a  complete  fertilizer  was  used,  but  the  plants  were  not  inoculated; 
on  the  right  clover  germs  supplied  all  the  nitrogen ;  in  the  center  the  plants 
received  no  nitrogen  and  were  not  inoculated.    (Grown  at  111.  Expt.  Station.) 

by  wrapping  its  small  yellow  threads  around  the  host  plant 
and  sucking  its  sap.  The  spots  where  it  appears  should 
be  covered  with  trash  and  burned. 

Red  clover  (Fig.  117).  —  Except  in  the  extreme  Southern 
and  Western  states  this  is  the  most  widely  grown  legume. 
It  lives  for  two  years,  the  seed  usually  being  sown  in  the 
spring,  on  growing  wheat  or  grass,  or  alone.  The  seed 
may  be  sown  in  the  fall.  Red  clover  affords  two  or  more 
cuttings  the  second  year,  sometimes  even  the  first  year  on 


1/8  AGRICULTURE 

suitable  soil  in  the  extreme  Southern  states.  It  requires  a 
lime  soil  and  is  unsuited  to  most  of  the  sandy  lands  from 
the  Carolinas  to  Louisiana. 

Japan  clover.  —  This  is  a  soil-improving  plant,  but  not  a 
true  clover ;  hence  soil  from  near  its  roots  will  not  inocu- 
late crimson  or  red  clover.  Its  true  name  is  Lespedeza. 
It  is  the  best  pasture  plant  among  the  legumes  for  the 
poorest  Southern  soils.  It  grows  wild  over  the  greater  part 
of  the  Southern  states.  Although  an  annual,  it  comes  up 
every  spring  from  seed  shed  the  preceding  fall.  The  seed 
may  be  sown  in  early  spring  alone  or  on  a  field  of  oats  or 
wheat.  On  rich,  moist  land  it  sometimes  grows  tall  enough 
to  be  used  for  hay.  The  pasturage  and  the  hay  are  very 
nutritious. 

Soy  bean.  —  This  annual  legume  (Figs.  ii8,  119,  120)  is 
used  like  the  cowpea  for  hay,  seed,  and  soil  improvement. 
It  has  the  advantage  over  cowpeas  that  the  hay  does  not 
tangle  and  that  the  seed  are  threshed  out  instead  of  being 
picked.  It  is  sown  in  May  or  early  in  June  in  rows 
about  three  feet  apart. 

Grass  plants  used  as  food  for  live-stock.  —  Common 
grasses  all  have  slender,  pointed  leaves,  which  wrap  partly 
around  the  stem.  Those  that  creep  along  the  ground  and 
form  roots  from  the  joints,  like  Bermuda  grass  and  carpet 
grass,  are  generally  good  for  pasturage.  North  of  the 
Gulf  states  favorite  pasture  grasses  are  blue  grass,  orchard 
grass,  and  red-top.  Those  that  stand  erect,  like  Johnson 
grass,  sorghum,  and  millet,  are  chiefly  useful  for  hay. 

Many  pastures  are  more  profitable  than  any  cultivated 
land  on  the  farm.     Any  land  that  has  become  too  poor  to 


SOME  FORAGE  PLANTS 


179 


be  worth  cultivating  should  generally  be  used  for  pasture. 
Scatter  over  it  seed  of  Japan   clover  (Lespedeza)  or  of 


Fig.  118.  —  Part  of  a 
Soy  Bean  Plant 


Fig.  119  —  A  Mature  Soy  Bean  Plant, 

SHOWING  THE  PODS 


x8o 


AGRICULTURE 


other  suitable  forage  plants.  Land  improves  while  being 
used  for  pasture  chiefly  because  much  vegetable  matter  is 
formed  near  the   surface   and  because  some  of  the  wild 

clovers  creep  in  and  start 
the  fertilizer  factories  on 
their  roots. 

In  the  Southern  states 
much  more  land  should 
be  used  for  pasturing  live- 
stock.  This  becomes 
doubly  necessary  where 
the  boll-weevil  is,  because 
cotton  cannot  there  be 
profitably  grown  on  the 
poorest  land.  This,  how- 
ever, would  yield  a  fair 
profit  if  used  for  pasture. 
Bermuda  grass. — Some 
Fio.  lao.-PoDs  OF  Soy  Beans  farmers  fear  to  introduce 
this  grass  because  it  is  difficult  to  destroy.  There  will  seldom 
be  any  desire  to  destroy  it  if  pastures  of  it  are  started 
in  the  right  location.  With  Bermuda  grass  may  be  mixed 
Japan  clover  for  summer  grazing  and  either  bur  clover  or 
vetch  for  winter  grazing.  Another  excellent  grass  for 
pasture  is  carpet  grass,  which  is  not  difficult  to  destroy. 
Portions  of  the  plants  or  roots  must  be  set,  or  the  seed 
of  carpet  grass  must  be  saved  from  the  low  spots. 

Sorghum.  —  This  annual  plant  will  grow  on  almost  any 
soil.  It  is  useful  for  green  forage  or  for  hay,  and  for  mak- 
ing syrup.     The  seed  must  be  sown  thick  to  make  good 


SOME   FORAGE   PLANTS  l8l 

hay.  Sorghum  endures  drought  better  than  most  annual 
grasses.  It  greatly  exhausts  the  soil  and  hence  should 
generally  be  followed  by  a  legume. 

Kafir.  —  This  plant,  also  called  kafir  corn,  is  a  kind  of 
sorghum  without  sweet  juice.  It  is  used  in  Oklahoma  and 
Texas,  both  as  a  grain  crop  and  for  forage.  It  endures 
drought  better  than  corn,  and  hence  in  dry  climates  it 
largely  takes  the  place  of  corn. 

Kafir  for  grain  is  planted  in  rows  wide  enough  to  permit 
cultivation.  The  plants  are  usually  harvested  by  machinery 
and  cured  in  shocks. 

Exercise.  —  Write  in  your  notebook  a  list  of  names  of  all  varieties 
of  cowpeas  (southern  "  field  pea  ")  grown  near  your  home.  Write  a 
description  of  the  seed  of  varieties  of  cowpeas  that  you  know  or  that 
you  can  examine.  If  you  can  find  specimens  of  any  of  the  plants  men- 
tioned in  this  section,  carry  them  to  the  teacher.  Would  you  like  to 
make  an  acre  of  land  rich  by  sowing  on  it  inoculated  crimson  clover 
seed  .-* 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  Most  experiment  stations,  as  well  as 
the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  have  published  bulletins  on  some 
of  these  forage  plants,  and  these  bulletins  are  generally  sent  free  to 
applicants.  If  you  succeed  in  interesting  your  pupils  in  these  soil- 
improving  plants,  you  may  be  the  means  of  greatly  increasing  the  pros- 
perity of  the  community. 


SECTION   XXXI.    WEEDS 

A  WEED  is  simply  a  plant  growing  where  it  is  not  wanted. 
Hence  a  kind  of  plant  that  is  useful  in  some  fields  may  be 
a  weed  in  other  fields  because  it  interferes  with  the  growth 
of  some  crop.  Among  the  plants  that  are  sometimes 
weeds  and  at  other  times  useful  are  Johnson  grass,  crab 
grass,  and  beggarweed. 

How  weeds  injure  the  farmer.  —  Weeds  are  injurious 
because  (i)  they  use  plant-food  and  fertilizer  needed  by 
the  more  valuable  crop  plants;  (2)  they  rob  the  culti- 
vated plants  of  water  by  taking  up  the  moisture  of  the 
soil  for  their  own  use;  (3)  they  greatly  increase  the  ex- 
pense of  cultivating  the  crops.  Weeds  are  robber  plants 
and  must  not  be  allowed  to  become  large  and  strong,  for 
then  the  crop  will  be  ruined.  Poor  farmers  cultivate  their 
crops  only  as  much  as  weeds  compel  them  to,  but  good 
farmers  cultivate  the  ground  when  there  are  no  weeds,  so 
as  to  keep  the  lower  layers  of  the  soil  moist. 

Study  the  habits  of  weeds.  —  To  get  rid  of  weeds  in  the 
easiest  and  cheapest  way,  study  their  habits.  First  make 
sure  whether  they  are  annuals.  If  they  are  annuals,  such 
as  crab  grass,  foxtail,  ragweeds,  and  bitterweed,  all  that 
has  to  be  done  is  to  keep  them  from  maturing  seed.  If 
they  are  biennials,  like  sweet  clover,  no  seeds  should  be 
allowed  to  form  for  two  years.  If  they  are  perennials, 
'  like  Johnson  grass,  nut  grass,  thistles,  and  dock,  the  forma- 

182 


WEEDS 


183 


tion  of  seeds  should  be  prevented  by  cutting  the  tops 
down  for  a  number  of  years.  Even  if  the  growth  of  seed 
is  prevented,  there  is  still  more  work  to  be  done  to  rid  the 
land  of  the  roots  of  these  long-lived,  robbers. 

The  vigorous  growth  and  abundant  formation  of  seed 
by  some  weeds  are  shown  in  Figs.  121  and  122. 

Killing  perennial  weeds.  —  Weeds  that  come  up  year 
after  year  from  the  roots   are   usually  not  easy  to    kill. 


Fig.  121.  —  Mullein 


Fig.  122.  —  Narrow-leaved  Dock 


Plowing  them  with  a  sharp  plow  sometimes  destroys  them 
if  the  roots  are  all  brought  to  the  surface  and  thus  dried. 
This  is  one  of  the  easiest  ways  to  kill  Bermuda  grass.  Shal- 
low plowing  is  best  for  killing  this  grass  because  the  shal- 
low furrow-slice  dries  out  more  completely  than  a  thicker 
layer  of  upturned  soil.  Any  plant  is  more  easily  killed 
l^te  in  its  growing  season,  for  then  it  cannot  so  easily 


l84  AGRICULTURE 

mend  an  injury.  Johnson  grass  is  more  easily  killed  in 
August  or  September  than  earlier.  In  killing  biennial  or 
perennial  weeds,  they  must  be  cut  off  below  the  crown. 

Smothering  weeds.  —  Sometimes  the  farmer  can  hire 
other  plants  to  kill  weeds.  A  crop  of  cowpeas  or  of 
velvet  beans  will  sometimes  smother  Bermuda  grass  so 
that  very  little  of  it  is  left  at  the  end  of  the  season.  The 
cowpeas  or  velvet  beans  kill  the  grass  by  shading  it  and 
by  taking  up  the  soil  water  which  the  grass  needs. 

Keeping  weeds  off  the  farm.  —  Good  plowing  and  care- 
ful preparation  may  greatly  reduce  the  number  of  weeds 
on  the  farm.  But  their  seed  or  those  of  worse  weeds  may 
be  brought  back  mixed  with  purchased  seed  of  grain, 
clover,  or  grass.  Weed  seeds  are  sure  to  be  present  in  the 
cheaper  grades  of  grass  and  clover  seeds.  It  pays  to  buy 
the  best  of  these  in  spite  of  their  e.xtra  cost. 

Exercise.  —  Learn  to  recognize  the  seeds  of  some  of  the  worst 
weeds.  A  collection  that  is  interesting  and  useful  consists  of  small 
bottles  of  weed  seeds,  properly  labeled. 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  Let  pupils  make  a  list  of  weeds  of 
which  they  can  find  the  seeds  and  ask  them  to  obser\'e  whether  these 
are  spread  by  (i)  wind,  (2)  adhering  to  men  or  animals,  (3)  by  the 
popping  of  the  pods  or  seed  cases,  or  (4)  otherwise.  If  Bailey's 
"  Lessons  with  Plants"  (Macmillan)  is  at  hand,  read  pp.  336-341. 


Fic.  133.  — One  or  Tax  Tboublesome  MounNo-CLOUKS 


SECTION   XXXII.     THE  VEGETABLE   GARDEN 

The  products  that  a  half-acre  garden  affords  are  gener- 
ally worth  more  than  those  produced  on  several  acres  of 
common  field.  From  a  half  acre  of  land  a  man  whose 
business  is  gardening  sometimes  sells  enough  vegetables 
to  bring  him  ^loo  to  ;^200  or  more.  To  make  a  garden 
productive,  treat  it  as  follows :  — 

(i)  Manure  it  heavily,  using  20  to  40  wagon  loads  of 
compost  or  manure  per  acre  each  year.  (2)  Keep  every 
part  of  it  busy,  growing  two  or  three  crops  a  year  on 
the  same  rows.  (3)  Plant  such  vegetables  as  will  furnish 
something  for  the  table  every  week  in  the  year.  (4)  Plow 
the  garden  deep  in  the  late  fall  or  winter  and  keep  it 
always  so  clean  that  a  crop  of  rank  weeds  and  weed  seeds 
will  not  need  to  be  plowed  under.  The  garden  will  pay 
well  for  all  the  manure  put  on  it.  Vegetables  are  more 
tender  and  better,  as  well  as  earlier  and  more  abundant, 
when  grown  on  rich  land. 

Planting  seed.  —  In  planting  garden  seed,  cover  the 
large  seeds,  like  beans  and  peas,  with  several  inches  of 
earth.  The  small  seeds  must  be  covered  very  lightly. 
Seeds  will  not  readily  germinate  in  rather  dry,  loose  soil 
unless  it  be  pressed  closely  against  them,  so  that  it  may 
bring  up  moisture,  just  as  a  wick  brings  oil  to  the  lamp 
flame.  Many  gardeners  tread  on  nearly  every  seed  they 
plant,  walking  on  the  open  drill  on  top  of  the  seeds.     The 

i8s 


l86  AGRICULTURE 

same  packing  of  the  seeds  against  the  soil  in  the  bottom 
of  the  furrow  can  be  secured  by  rolling  an  empty  wheel- 
barrow over  them  before  they  are  covered.  The  ground 
must  not  be  wet  when  packed.  Loose  soil  should  cover 
the  footprints  or  the  track  of  the  wheelbarrow.  This 
loose  layer  of  soil  keeps  the  moisture  from  rising  above 
the  seeds  and  evaporating. 

How  to  set  a  young  plant.  —  Many  kinds  of  vegetable 
seeds,  such  as  those  of  cabbage  and  tomatoes,  are  sown 
in  boxes  or  hotbeds  before  they  are  safely  planted  out 
of  doors.  In  these  boxes  or  hotbeds  the  seeds  should  be 
planted  thickly  in  tiny  trenches  several  inches  apart.  If 
possible,  the  plants  should  be  thinned  as  soon  as  they  show 
the  first  well-developed  true  leaf.  The  surplus  plants  should 
be  transplanted  to  other  boxes  or  to  other  parts  of  the  cold- 
frame.  Plants  that  have  been  moved  once  while  still  in  boxes 
or  coldframes  are  stronger,  better  shaped,  have  a  better 
root  system,  and  grow  better  when  placed  in  the  garden. 
Let  the  plant  grow  several  inches  high  in  the  seed-box  if  it 
must  be  transplanted  directly  from  the  box  to  the  garden. 

In  transplanting,  avoid  doubling  the  roots.  If  the 
ground  is  so  dry  that  the  young  plants  must  be  watered 
when  transplanted,  first  punch  the  hole ;  next  insert  the 
plant;  then  pour  in  a  cupful  of  water,  which  will  settle 
the  soil  snugly  around  the  roots.  Last  and  most  impor- 
tant of  all,  draw  up  loose,  drier  soil  around  the  plant  and 
over  the  wet  spot.  Every  time  a  young  plant  is  watered, 
the  wet  spot  should  afterwards  be  covered  with  loose,  dry 
soil  to  hold  the  moisture  and  to  keep  a  crust  from  forming. 
When  rather  large  plants  are  transplanted,  it  is  best   to 


THE   VEGETABLE   GARDEN  187 

pinch  off  some  of  the  leaves  so  that  they  may  not  evaporate 
water  faster  than  the  broken  roots  can  supply  it. 

A  succession  of  vegetables.  —  A  little  work  and  a  little 
planning  every  week  are  worth  more  to  a  garden  than 
twice  as  much  work  every  two  weeks.  By  thus  planning, 
it  is  possible  to  have  vegetables  every  week  in  the  year. 
Most  well-cultivated  gardens  in  the  Southern  states  afford 
an  abundance  of  vegetables  during  May,  June,  and  July. 
To  be  sure  of  a  continuous  supply  through  August,  Sep- 
tember, and  October,  make  late  plantings  of  tomatoes, 
butter  beans,  okra,  corn,  eggplants,  and  other  vegetables 
that  thrive  in  hot  weather. 

The  period  when  fresh  vegetables  are  scarce  is  from 
November  to  March.  During  this  time,  there  should  be 
a  stored-up  supply  of  sweet  potatoes,  fall-grown  Irish 
potatoes,  cushaws,  pumpkins,  dried  beans,  dried  sliced 
okra,  and  ruta-baga  turnips.  Fresh  vegetables  can  also 
be  had  during  most  of  this  time  by  planting  in  July, 
August,  or  September  seeds  of  collards,  cabbage,  ruta- 
baga turnips,  beets,  beans,  and  turnips.  The  planting  of 
onion  sets  in  the  fall  and  the  sowing  of  seed  of  kale  and 
spinach  for  winter  "  greens "  should  not  be  forgotten. 
Salsify  is  a  delicious  vegetable  available  for  fall  use. 

Hotbed  or  coldframe.  —  To  obtain  early  vegetables  a 
hotbed  or  coldframe  will  be  helpful,  because  under  this 
the  young  plants  can  be  started  during  the  winter.  The 
frame  is  made  as  shown  in  Figure  125.  It  has  no  bottom, 
but  rests  over  a  shallow  pit  into  which  a  layer  of  damp 
manure  has  been  placed,  and  covered  with  several  inches 
of   soil.      The   purpose   of   this   manure  is  to  afford,  by 


l88  AGRICULTURE 

fermentation,  heat  to  warm  the  soil  in  which  the  seeds  are 
to  be  planted.  Place  the  seeds  in  drills  a  few  inches  apart. 
When  the  frame  is  placed  over  such  a  layer  of  heating 
manure,  the  whole  is  called  a  hotbed.  A  similar  frame 
is  called  a  coldframe  if  no  manure  is  used  under  it.  The 
cover  usually  consists  of  several  glass  sashes.  On  a 
coldframe  the  cover  may  be  of  white  cloth. 

To  make  a  small  hotbed  or  coldframe  to  be  covered  by 
a  single  sash  construct  a  wooden  frame  six  feet  long  and 
at  least  three  feet  wide.  The  back  should  be  twelve 
inches  high  and  the  front  eight  inches.  It  is  better  to 
make  it  at  least  six  feet  wide,  thus  requiring  two  sashes. 
The  glass  sashes  slide  on  strips  nailed  to  the  sides  or  on 
crosspieces,  as  shown  in  Fig.  125.  The  earth  should  be 
banked  around  the  outside  of  the  frame. 

The  slope  of  the  glass  sash  should  be  towards  the 
south.  The  sun's  rays  strike  through  the  glass,  which 
serves  as  a  trap  for  the  heat.  In  this  heated  air  and  soil 
young  cabbage,  tomatoes,  and  other  plants  grow  rapidly. 
On  mild  days,  the  glass  must  be  lifted  so  as  to  prevent 
disease  and  to  accustom  the  plants  to  cool  weather.  A 
box  kept  near  a  window  indoors,  or  covered  with  a  few 
panes  of  glass,  may  take  the  place  of  a  hotbed. 

Vegetables  that  may  be  planted  in  cool  weather.  — 
Among  the  plants  of  the  garden  that  can  endure  rather 
cold  weather  are  peas,  kale,  mustard,  radish,  spinach,  and 
lettuce.  The  seeds  of  these  plants  are  therefore  usually 
the  first  to  be  planted,  in  February  or  earlier.  Young 
cabbage  plants  endure  much  cold.  In  the  central  part 
of   the   Gulf   states  they   often  live   through   the   winter 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN  189 

when  set  on  the  south  side  of  a  high  ridge  or  bed.     Irish 
potatoes  are  planted  while  the  weather  is  still  cold. 

Among   the  vegetables  that  are  not  entirely  killed  by 
slight  frosts  are  beets.     Asparagus  is  one  of  the  earliest 


Photograph  by  R.  S.  Mackintosh 

Fig.  124.  —  Planting  Asparagus  Roots 

of  the  season  and  comes  each  spring  from  the  old  roots. 
It  may  be  grown  from  seed  sown  in  early  spring.  The 
next  winter  the  roots  of  the  young  plants  are  trans- 
planted (Fig.  124)  to  rows  that  have  been  plowed  very 


I90  AGRICULTURE 

deep  and  made  very  rich  with  well-rotted  manure.  A 
quicker  crop  is  secured  by  buying  the  roots  instead  of 
growing  them.  Onions  are  among  the  hardiest  of  vegeta- 
bles. Onion  sets  are  placed  in  the  ground  in  the  fall,  or 
in  January  or  February.  Some  varieties  of  onions  grow 
well  from  seeds  planted  in  the  fall  or  late  winter,  the 
young  plants  being  afterwards  transplanted.  Garden  peas 
are  planted  three  or  four  inches  deep,  usually  in  January, 
February,  and  March. 

Tender  vegetables.  —  Among  the  plants  easily  killed  by 
frost  are  beans,  tomatoes,  eggplants,  squash,  and  all  the 
other  members  of  the  gourd  or  melon  family.  These 
cannot  safely  show  above  ground  until  danger  of  frost  is 
past ;  so  they  are  usually  planted  about  the  same  time  as 
the  earliest  cotton.  Tomatoes  are  generally  started  under 
glass  and  transplanted  as  soon  as  the  danger  of  frost  is  past. 

Vegetables  that  suffer  from  hot  weather.  —  Peas  and 
lettuce  do  not  thrive  during  hot  weather.  Cabbages  and 
turnips  are  usually  ruined  by  the  harlequin  cabbage-bug 
and  by  other  insects  after  midsummer  ;  they  should,  there- 
fore, be  grown  either  as  very  early  crops  or  in  the  fall. 

Exerci.se.  —  Write  the  names  of  all  plants  the  leaves  of  which  you 
know  to  be  cooked  for  "greens."  During  what  months  can  each  one 
be  used  ?  Make  a  list  of  all  the  vegetables  you  have  ever  .seen  growing 
in  your  home  garden.  What  vegetables  besides  these  have  you  seen 
growing  elsewhere?  If  you  have  never  grown  any  plants  that  were 
really  your  own.  ask  at  home  if  you  may  not  have  one  row  in  the  garden 
for  yourself.  Among  the  plants  that  can  be  mast  quickly  grown  in  it 
ire  radishes,  turnips,  lettuce,  and  in  warm  weather,  bunch  snap  beans. 

Note  to  the  Teacher. —  Let  the  pupils  examine  and  compare  all 
obtainable  garden  seeds,  as  to  size,  color,  germination,  etc.  Write  to 
the  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington.  D.C.,  for  Farmers*  Bulletin 


THE   VEGETABLE   GARDEN 


191 


No.  255  on  vegetables,  also  for  publications  on  school-gardens,  and  con- 
sider whether  your  school  should  have  one,  or  whether  pupils  should  be 
encouraged  to  have  their  own  small  gardens  at  home.  In  any  way  get 
every  pupil  to  grow  some  useful  or  ornamental  plants  that  shall  really 
be  his  own.  By  questions  draw  out  from  the  oldest  members  of  the 
class  the  month  in  which  every  vegetable  mentioned  in  this  chapter  is 
usually  planted.  Similarly  secure  a  statement  of  the  months  during 
which  each  is  eaten.  Write  for  similar  bulletins  to  the  Experiment 
Station  in  your  own  state ;  use  the  seed  catalogues  also. 


Fig.  125. — A  Coldframe  of  Four  Sashes 


SECTION  XXXIII.      PLANNING   THE   FLOWER 

GARDEN 
By  Miss  F.  E.  Andrews 

Nature's  adornment  of  shrubs  and  flowers  is  more 
beautiful  than  the  most  costly  paintings.  Yet  flowers  may 
be   had   at  very   slight   expense.     The   care   of  a   small 


I'hulofrmph  bjr  R.  S.  Markinkwlt 

Fig.  126.  —  Plant  Flowers  and  Shrubs  near  tue  House, 

LEAVING  THE   LaWN  OPEN 

flower  garden,  all  one's  own,  is  a  perpetual  delight,  espe- 
cially to  a  young  person. 

In  general,  the  best  way  to  lay  off  a  flower  garden  is  not 
to  lay  it  off  at  all.  It  should  not  be  cut  up  into  stiff  beds. 
The  space  directly  in  front  of  the  house  should  be  left 
open  (Fig.  126).  Bermuda  grass  makes  the  best  sum- 
mer covering  for  Southern  lawns.     By  sowing  white  clover 

192 


PLANNING   THE   FLOWER   GARDEN 


193 


seed  on  it   in   early  fall,  the  lawn  will  gladden  the  eye 
with  its  carpet  of  green  before  winter  has  wholly  passed. 

There  may  be  a  border  of  low  flowering  plants  on  each 
side  of  the  walk,  while  against  the  walls  of  the  house  may  be 
grouped  taller  plants  and  shrubs  as  a  background  for  beds 
of  smaller,  bright-blooming  flowers.     The  colors  of  flowers 


Fiiulograph  by  K.  S.  MackintOBh 

Fig.  127.  —  A  Back  Yard  screened  by  a  Hedge  of  Privet 

show  better  if  many  of  the  same  kind  are  massed  together. 
The  place  for  shrubs.  —  Against  the  fence  on  either  side, 
and  in  the  corners  by  the  steps,  may  be  planted  shrubs, 
while  between  the  front  and  back  yards,  and  wherever  there 
is  any  unsightly  object  in  view,  there  should  be  a  screen  of 
tall  shrubs  or  vines.  The  Japan  honeysuckle  and  the 
Cherokee  rose  are  good  evergreen  vines  for  this  purpose. 
The  purple  wistaria  is  a  hardy  climbing  shrub  that  quickly 
covers  unsightly  objects  or  shades  sunny  porches.  For 
ornamental   hedges,   privet    and    pomegranate    are  good 


194 


AGRICULTURE 


(Fig.    127).     Some  of  the   many    beautiful    native  wild 
shrubs   serve   well   as   screens. 
What  to  plant  in  the  garden.  —  In  the  first  place,  hardyt 


E]^HBw~ 

^^ 

■  k. 

^-ni 

4*           «t          .    .).                ^ 

'^                     #^ 

r*.», 

m^^nm 

r 

Fig.  laS.  — Snowball 


self-reliant  plants  are  needed.  Choose  bouncing  clusters  of 
phlox  and  sweet  william,  and  ever-blooming  roses,  sturdy 
ranks  of  sunflowers,  hollyhocks,  and  prince's  feather,  that 


PLANNING  THE   FLOWER   GARDEN  195 

do  not  surrender  to  heat  or  drought,  and  smiling  beds  of 
pinks  and  verbenas. 

In  the  next  place,  select  plants  so  as  to  have  a  constant 
succession  of  flowers  all  the  year  round. 

Winter  and  early  spring  flowers.  —  White  hyacinths, 
jonquils,  sweet  violets,  and  Japan  quince  bloom  early  in 
the  year.  Then,  when  the  red  maple  begins  to  glow  in 
the  woods,  come  the  periwinkles,  the  early  narcissus, 
daffodils,  spireas  (bridal  wreaths),  and  the  blue  hyacinths. 
With  March,  the  early  lilacs  and  the  late  spireas  begin  to 
open  their  eyes.  April  brings,  along  with  dogwood,  red- 
bud,  and  haw  blossoms  and  wild  azaleas  in  the  woods,  a 
troop  of  early  roses,  the  wistaria,  snowball  (Fig.  128), 
white  iris  or  flag,  and  some  of  the  lilies.  On  through  May 
and  June  the  bright  throng  comes  trooping  by. 

Flowers  for  the  hot  dry  season.  —  During  the  hot  months 
of  m.idsummer  and  early  autum,  nature  generally  calls  a 
halt  to  this  gay  procession,  and  so  the  gardens  must  be  pro- 
vided with  plants  that  are  hardy  to  sun  and  drought.  For 
this  purpose  choice  lies  between  ever  blooming  roses,  holly- 
hocks, larkspurs  and  mallows,  four-o'clocks,  phlox,  "  snow- 
on-the-mountain,"  bear's  grass,  Spanish  bayonet,  "  old 
maids  "  and  "  bachelor's  buttons,"  "  black-eyed  Susans," 
and  the  whole  great  sunflower  family. 

Fall  and  winter  bloomers. — In  our  climate,  many  of 
the  summer  flowers  linger  into  late  fall  and  early  winter. 
This  is  especially  true  of  the  roses.  The  chrys  an'the  mums, 
too,  linger  till  long  after  frost ;  the  verbenas  and  scarlet 
sage  and  the  canna  last  late  into  the  year.  The  fall 
months  are  brightened  by  the   yellow  and  brown  of  the 


196  AGRICULTURE 

marigolds  and  by  the  varied  colors  of  cosmos,  conspicuous 
above  its  fringe-like  foliage. 

Beautifying  the  school  grounds.  —  The  same  principles, 
in  the  main,  will  apply  to  the  school  as  to  the  home 
garden.  As  a  general  thing,  more  hardy  plants  should 
be  chosen  for  the  school  grounds  for  the  reason  that  dur- 
ing the  part  of  the  year  when  the  school  is  not  in  session 
they  will  probably  receive  no  attention  whatever.  Hence 
it  is  well  to  choose  native  shrubs  and  flowers  for  planting 
around  the  schoolhouse.  Many  wild  plants  grown  in  the 
woods  are  quite  as  beautiful  as  the  most  expensive  pro- 
ductions of  the  florist.  An  ideal  location  for  a  schoolhouse 
is  in  a  grove,  for  then  there  is  no  need  for  flowers,  except, 
perhaps,  in  a  special  school  garden  beyond  the  shade  of  the 
trees.  The  school  garden  should  be  a  plot  of  ground  near 
the  school,  in  which  each  pupil  has  his  own  little  collection 
of  flowers,  vegetables,  and  crop  plants. 

Exercise.  —  Write  in  your  notebook  the  common  names  of  all  the 
wild  or  cultivated  shrubs  that  you  think  would  make  the  school  grounds 
look  better.  Think  about  the  best  place  to  plant  them.  Do  you  know 
where  they  could  be  obtained  without  cost  ? 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  This  section  affords  an  opportunity  to 
impress  the  advantages  of  improving  the  school  grounds,  as  does  also 
the  section  on  trees.  Could  not  some  of  the  pupils,  working  together, 
make  a  map  of  the  school  grounds,  showing  location  of  buildings, 
fences,  trees,  shrubs,  etc.  ?  Let  other  pupils  copy  this.  Then  let  each, 
after  a  few  days,  hand  in  his  or  her  map,  indicating  on  it  where  a  hedge 
or  screen  of  vines  should  be  located  and  where  trees  and  shrubs  ought 
to  be  planted.  Tell  them  to  keep  these  maps.  After  they  have  studied 
the  sections  on  trees  let  them  write  on  the  maps  the  kinds  of  trees  that 
they  would  choose  for  any  spot  needing  trees. 


SECTION  XXXIV.     GROWING  FLOWERS 


Most  of  the  plants  found  in  the  flower  garden  may  be 
classed  either  as  (i)  shrubs, (2)bulbs  and  tubers,  or  (3)  herbs. 
The  shrubs  are  all  per- 
ennial and  so  are  most 
of  the  plants  growing 
from  bulbs  and  tubers. 
Flowering  herbs  may  be 
either  annual,  biennial, 
or  perennial.  As  a  rule 
perennial  plants  furnish 
the  earliest  flowers,  for 
they  have  laid  up  in  their 
roots,  stems,  or  bulbs  a 
supply  of  food  intended 
to  hasten  the  growth  of 
the  new  flowers. 

Shrubs.  —  Most  culti- 
vated shrubs  can  be  in- 
creased by  means  of 
cuttings  or  by  suckers 
from  the  old  roots.  Shrubs  require  less  care  than  smaller 
plants  and  endure  for  many  years. 

There  are  roses  of  very  many  colors,  and  they  are 
among  the  most  beautiful  of  cultivated  flowers.  Roses 
are  grown  from  cuttings,  which  are  started  either  out  of 

197 


■'3(1^:  --■      "     ■■* 

m 

"^^^■^^ 

iil             '""'- 

Courtesy  Miiin.  Expt.  Station 

Fig.  129.  —  Washington's  Flower 
Garden  at  Mt.  Vernon 


198  AGRICULTURE 

doors  or  under  glass,  depending  on  the  kind  of  rose,  the 
climate,  and  the  soil.  On  these  points  you  will  need  the 
advice  of  those  neighbors  who  grow  roses.  Where  practi- 
cable to  start  your  rose  out  of  doors  proceed  as  follows: 
during  the  winter  take  a  portion  of  a  slender  ro.se  branch 
less  than  one  year  old  on  which  the  wood  has  recently 
become  firm.  Cut  this  six  to  eight  inches  long  and  remove 
the  leaves.  Be  sure  that  a  smooth  cut  is  made.  If  the 
cuttings  are  to  be  started  in  moist  sand  under  glass, 
they  may  be  much  shorter  and  of  younger  wood.  Part 
of  the  upper  leaf  may  be  left.  Place  the  longer  cuttings 
in  a  sloping  position  in  a  trench  in  the  flower  garden 
and  cover  them  up  to  the  top  bud  with  earth.  Where  tha 
winters  are  cold  a  thin  layer  of  leaves  may  be  added. 
Roots  may  form  in  four  to  six  weeks.  When  one  year 
old  or  less,  the  plants  may  be  transplanted  to  the  place 
where  they  are  to  remain.  Roses  like  good  soil,  and  the 
ground  around  them  ought  each  year  to  receive  a  coating 
of  manure,  which  serves  as  fertilizer  and  a  millch.  On 
sour  soils  a  little  lime  is  helpful. 

There  are  a  number  of  classes  of  roses,  some  blooming 
almost  continuously  and  others  only  once  or  twice  during 
the  year. 

Bulbs,  tubers,  etc.  —  The  onion  and  the  lily  are  ex- 
amples of  bulbs.  A  bulb  consists  of  a  number  of  thick- 
ened, tightly  wrapped  leaves.  Bulbs  that  grow  form 
new  bulbs,  and  by  planting  these  the  plant  is  multiplied. 
Plants  grown  from  bulbs  need  rich  soil.  Most  of  them 
afford  very  early  flowers.  In  cold  climates  bulbs  are  dug, 
dried,  and  stored  indoors  during  the  winter. 


GROWING  FLOWERS  I99 

The  canna  affords  a  wealth  of  blooms  —  red,  pink, 
yellow,  and  other  gay  colors  —  during  the  heat  of  sum- 
mer. It  is  increased  by  planting  portions  of  the  roots. 
In  the  Gulf  states  no  winter  protection  is  needed  except 
to  cut  off  the  tops  as  soon  as  frost  occurs  and  to  place 
these  over  the  roots,  covering  all  with  a  light  coat  of  earth. 
Violets  for  winter  and  early  spring,  and  hardy  chrysan- 
themums for  late  fall  flowering,  are  increased  by  dividing 
the  roots  of  old  clusters  of  plants. 

Flowers  easily  grown  from  seed.  —  Most  of  these  are 
annual  plants,  living  less  than  one  year.  Some  are  longer- 
lived,  for  example,  the  foxglove,  the  hollyhock,  and  the 
larkspur. 

The  California  poppy  is  a  fine-leaved  plant,  with  large, 
brilliant  flowers.  The  seeds  of  this  plant,  and  also  of  the 
common  poppies,  are  sown  as  soon  as  danger  of  severe 
freezes  is  past.  At  the  same  time  the  seeds  of  pinks  or 
carnations  are  sown. 

The  sweet  tvilliam  is  closely  related  to  the  pink.  The 
flowers  are  showy  and  beautiful.  The  plant  is  rather 
hardy  towards  heat. 

The  annual  phloxes  are  among  the  best  flowers  for  chil- 
dren to  grow,  because  they  afford  such  a  mass  of  varied 
and  bright  colors  so  soon  after  the  seeds  are  sown  in  early 
spring.     They  need  good  soil  and  abundance  of  water. 

Pansies  are  general  favorites  for  early  flowers.  They 
combine  two  or  more  rich  colors  in  the  same  flower. 
Among  the  most  beautiful  of  all  are  the  shades  of  purple. 
The  pansy,  and,  indeed,  most  of  these  very  early  annuals, 
can  be  sown  in  boxes  indoors  (Fig.  130),  and  transplanted  to 


200 


AGRICULTURE 


the  flower  garden  as  soon  as  freezing  has  ceased.  Pansies, 
like  sweet  peas,  are  cool-weather  bloomers ;  both  require 
moist  soil  and  are  unable  to  withstand  much  heat. 

Verbenas  are  the  favorite  flowers  of  many  children  and 
of  many  grown  people  as  well.  They  grow  either  from 
seed  or  cuttings.     There  are  few  more  beautiful  sights  in 


Courtesy  Minn.  £ipt 

Fig.  130.  —  One  Method  of  planting  Small  Seed  in  Boxes 

the  flower  garden  than  a  border  thickly  bedecked  with  the 
purple  and  crimson  or  other  various  colors  of  the  verbena. 
Among  the  annuals  most  able  to  continue  blooming  dur- 
ing the  heat  of  summer  are  the  petunia  and  the  nasturtium. 
There  are  both  dwarf  and  climbing  nasturtiums,  all  having 
large,  bright  flowers.  The  seeds  of  petunias  are  so  small 
that,  like  many  other  flower  seeds,  they  need  either  the 
shallowest  possible  covering,  or  none.  A  good  way  to 
plant  such  seeds  is  to  sow  them,  and  then  with  a  board 
press  them  against  the  surface ;  sprinkle  over  them  the 
thinnest  possible  layer  of  very  fine  sifted  forest  soiL  This 
holds  moisture  and  docs  not  easily  form  a  crust. 


GROWING  FLOWERS  20I 

Among  the  plants  that  do  not  need  to  be  sown  until  the 
weather  becomes  warm  are  the  marigolds  and  cosmos. 
Their  blooms  are  wanted  in  late  summer  and  fall,  after 
most  flowers  have  ceased  blooming.  Scarlet  sage  is  also 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  of  the  autumn  flowering  plants, 
its  tall  stems  being  crowded  with  bright  red  flowers.  Hol- 
lyhocks are  tall  plants  grown  from  seed,  but  not  showing 
their  large,  gaudy  flowers  until  the  second  year. 

Window  gardens.  —  Many  persons  who  have  not  room 
for  an  outdoor  flower  garden  find  pleasure  in  a  little  window 
garden.  The  flowers  may  be  grown  in  pots  or  boxes, 
inside  a  sunny  window  or  on  a  shelf  outside  (Fig.  131). 
Most  of  the  smaller  outdoor  flowering  plants  may  be  thus 
grown  from  seeds,  bulbs,  roots,  and  cuttings,  and  in  ad- 
dition, many  less  hardy  plants,  such  as  begonias,  crab 
cactus,  and  geraniums.  To  start  geraniums  or  other  soft- 
wood cuttings,  place  the  lower  portions  of  the  cuttings  in 
clean  sand  kept  constantly  wet,  and  in  a  sunny  window. 
If  necessary,  a  pane  of  glass  can  be  placed  over  them  to 
retain  the  heat,  and  thus  make  a  tiny  greenhouse. 

Exercise.  —  Ask  some  grower  of  flowers  whether  the  present  is  a 
suitable  time  to  start  cuttings  of  roses  and  other  flowers.  If  so,  make 
some  cuttings  and  set  them.  Ask  at  home  or  at  some  neighbor's  if  there 
is  any  flower  from  which  you  can  get  a  start  of  bulbs,  roots,  or  cuttings. 
Before  using  them  make  sure  they  are  free  from  disease  or  insect  injury. 
Write  in  your  notebook  a  list  of  five  of  your  favorite  flowers. 

Note  TO  the  Teacher.  —  Catalogues  are  sent  free  by  most  seedsmen. 
The  illustrations  in  them  and  their  descriptions  of  varieties  will  be  of 
greatest  service  to  you  in  enlisting  the  pupil's  interest  in  flowers.  An 
especially  helpful  publication  is  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  195,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  on  Annual  Flowering  Plants.  If  not  already 
obtained,  write  to  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  for  bul- 


202 


AGRICULTURE 


letins  on  school  gardens,  and  consider  whether  your  school  can  longer 
afford  to  do  without  one.  See  also  note  to  Section  XXX II  and  Appen* 
dix.  In  city  schools  or  elsewhere,  boxes  of  flowers  in  the  windows 
serve  a  useful  purpose.  Let  the  main  aim  be  to  make  the  pupils  closer 
observers  and  more  appreciative  of  flowers.  Urge  them  to  bring  flowers 
to  the  class  now  and  later  to  be  used  as  object  lessons.  Familiarize  the 
pupils  with  the  foliage  as  well  as  with  the  blooms  of  the  flowers  that  can 
be  inspected.  Is  an  excursion  to  some  greenhouse  or  flower  pit  prac- 
ticable ? 


Fio.  131.  —  A  WiNDow-Box  Garden 


SECTION   XXXV.     FOREST   TREES   ' 

The  true  value  of  trees  is  scarcely  realized  until  we  con- 
sider the  sufferings  of  people  who  live  in  countries  that 
are  almost  without  trees.  Parts  of  India,  Egypt,  China, 
and  Korea  are  in  this  treeless  condition.  In  winter  the 
people  suffer  intensely  from  cold  and  have  to  work  very 
hard  to  supply  themselves  with  even  a  little  fuel.  A  day's 
hard  work  may  be  rewarded  with  only  a  basket  of  the 
roots  of  shrubs.  Every  bit  of  refuse  in  the  streets  and 
stables  is  collected  and  dried  for  fuel. 

Rapid  destruction  of  the  forest.  —  Our  own  country  is  in 
danger  of  becoming  a  country  that  will  lack  trees  enough 
to  furnish  lumber  for  our  homes  and  to  supply  our  fac- 
tories. Those  who  have  studied  the  matter  state  that  in 
the  United  States  each  year  three  times  as  much  wood 
is  consumed  as  is  supplied  by  one  year's  growth  of  all 
the  trees  in  the  country.  Some  even  declare  that  unless 
this  waste  is  promptly  stopped,  in  twenty-five  years  there 
will  be  practically  no  forests  east  of  the  Mississippi 
River.  This  misfortune  can  be  prevented  by  every  one's 
quickly  realizing  the  true  value  of  a  tree.  There  is  no 
time  to  be  lost,  for  it  takes  most  kinds  of  trees  50  to  100 
years  to  grow  large  enough  to  make  the  best  lumber. 

The  tree  lives  longer  than  any  other  form  of  vegetable 

203 


204 


AGRICULTURE 


life.  It  is  the  patriarch  among  plants.  The  life  of  a 
young  tree  ought  not  to  be  taken  except  for  good  cause. 
The  farmer  who  makes  firewood  out  of  saplings  is  de- 
stroying the  property  of  his  children.  When  trees  mature 
or  reach  the  point  where  their  growth  is  very  slow,  they 
should  be  cut  and  used,  so  that  they  may  yield  a  profit 
and  make  room  for  younger  and  more  rapid-growing  trees. 
Saplings  or  young  trees  should  be  removed  only  where 
the  growth  is  too  thick. 

Forest  fires.  —  The  long-leaf  or  yellow  pine  tree  may  be 
six  years  old  before  it  becomes  one  foot  high.    A  single  fire, 


Courte*7  Forctt  Scrvwc,  U.  8.  Utft-  Afr- 

Fio.  ijj.  — Destructivk  Effects  of  Fire  in  a  Forest  of  Lono-leaf  Pdib 


Started  by  some  careless  hunter  or  other  thoughtless  per- 
son "  to  burn  off  the  grass,"  may  kill  a  thousand  of  these 
and  other  valuable  kinds  of  trees  on  every  acre  that  it 
invades  (Fig.  132).     Besides  this,  fires  make  the  soil  of 


FOREST  TREES 


205 


the  forest  poorer  by  destroying  the  vegetable  matter  and 
thus  retard  the  growth  of  the  surviving  trees.  The  old 
method  of  boxing  young  pine  trees  in  order  to  make 
turpentine  (as  in  Fig.  133)  causes  them  to  catch  fire  more 
easily  than  they  otherwise 
would.  The  new  method 
of  collecting  sap  for  tur- 
pentine, using  cups  and 
metal  gutters,  is  much 
better  for  the  tree  (Fig. 

134). 

Uses  of  forests.  —  For- 
ests not  only  furnish  lum- 
ber, material  for  paper, 
and  scores  of  useful  arti- 
cles, but  they  decrease 
floods.  When  rain  falls 
on  the  soil  of  a  forest 
that  has  never  been  burnt 
over,  it  sinks  into  the 
mellow  soil  and  slowly 
drains  away  to  the  creeks, 
which  carry  off  the  water 
without    overflowing. 

When    the  trees    are    cut,    ^^-  133— The  Old  Method  of  boxing 

Pine  Trees  for  Turpentine 
the  surface  loses  its  layer 

of  leaves  and  becomes  hard,  so  that  when   heavy  rains 

occur,  the  water  rushes  rapidly  down  the  slope,  washes 

sand  and  soil  into  the  creeks,  and  overflows  the  bottom 

lands. 


CuuilMjr  >'uie«t  aervicc,  U.  i>.  l>cpt.  Agr. 

Fic.  134. — The  Ccp  AND  Gutter 
Systeu  of  boxing  Pine  Trees 
FOR  Turpentine 


Aflrr  Forest  8«rrlec,  V.  8.  I>«pl.  Afr. 

Fio.  135.  —  A  Cross-section  of  an  Oak 
Log,  showing  Annual  Rings 


Photo  by  DtiiKsa 

Fig.  136.  —  A  Young  Ix)ng-lfj^p  Pine 
The  seU  of  branches  indicate  the  age  of  the  top 
ao6 


FOREST  TREES  207 

Telling  the  age  of  a  tree.  —  The  age  of  a  tree  may  be 
discovered  by  examining  the  log  or  the  stump  left  after 
it  has  been  felled.  On  the  smoothly  cut  end  of  the  log 
there  are  a  number  of  light-colored  rings  with  layers  of 
darker  color  between  (Fig.  135).  Generally  one  light- 
colored  ring  and  one  dark-colored  layer  were  formed  each 
year.  The  number  of  light  rings  tells  in  years  the  age  of 
that  part  of  the  body  of  the  tree.  The  age  of  each  limb 
is  told  in  the  same  way. 

There  is  another  way  to  tell  how  long  it  has  been  since  the 
pine  and  some  other  trees  were  only  as  high  as  their 
lowest  limbs  now  are.  This  is  done  by  counting  the 
number  of  sets  of  lim.bs  or  sets  of  knots  where  limbs 
once  grew.  Every  set  of  limbs,  growing  out  of  the  trunk 
at  about  the  same  place,  means  one  year ;  for  each  set 
represents  the  buds  or  young  branches  which  form  on 
the  twig  near  the  place  where  the  new  and  the  old  growth 
join  (Fig.  136). 

Exercise. —  Report  to  the  teacher  the  age  of  the  following  by 
counting  the  annual  rings:  (i)  a  log,  or  stump,  or  piece  of  firewood, 
all  from  an  old-field  pine,  (2)  a  similar  piece  from  a  long-leaf  pine, 
(3)  a  branch  of  either  old-field  or  long-leaf  pine.  Which  has  the 
thicker  annual  rings?  Judging  by  this,  which  tree  grows  more  rapidly? 
Select  a  pine  tree  10  to  20  feet  high  and,  without  cutting  it,  count  the 
sets  of  limbs  and  tell  how  long  it  has  been  since  that  tree  was  only  as 
high  as  its  lowest  limb  now  is.  Think  about  this  subject  for  your  next 
composition,  "  How  Much  Harm  One  Forest  Fire  Did."  Is  the  heart- 
wood  or  the  sapwood  the  best  for  lumber? 


SECTION   XXXVI.      FOREST    TREES    {Contintud) 

If  a  wire  is  stapled  to  a  tree,  it  will  not  be  pushed 
outwards  as  the  tree  grows  larger,  but  will  be  buried  under 
the  new  layer  of  wood  (Fig.  137).  It  thus  cuts  into  and 
injures  the  lumber.  Fig.  138  shows  a  better  way  to  attach 
a  fence  wire  to  a  tree. 

Planting  trees  on  the  school  grounds.  —  When  the 
school  ground  needs  shade  and  beauty,  plant  trees  and 
pretty  shrubs  taken  from  the  woods.  Set  aside  one  day  as 
"  Arbor  Day  "  for  the  planting  of  these  trees.  In  the 
Southern  states  a  good  time  for  this  is  in  December, 
January,  and  February.  Plan  what  kinds  of  trees  and 
shrubs  to  plant  and  where  to  put  every  one  in  order  to 
make  the  school  grounds  as  beautiful  as  possible.  They 
will  live  better  if  not  planted  on  the  playground,  where  the 
shaking  will  dry  the  roots.  If  planted  there,  they  should 
be  protected  by  strong  stakes  until  the  trees  are  several 
years  old.  The  directions  given  in  Section  XXXVII  for 
setting  fruit  trees  will  help  in  setting  shade  trees. 

Choose  some  of  the  following  for  planting  on  the  school 
grounds  :  the  water  or  willow-leaved  oak  as  a  round-topped 
shade  tree,  suited  even  to  poor,  dry  .soils ;  the  sweet 
gum,  for  its  rapid  growth,  graceful  shape,  its  willingness 
to  grow  on  almost  any  soil,  and  for  its  red  and  purple 
leaves  in  autumn  ;  the  mulberry  for  its  rapid  gjrowth,  good 

ao8 


FOREST   TREES 


209 


shade,  and  sweet  fruits ;  the  elm  for  its  rapid  growth,  great 
size,  and  graceful  shape  ;  the  hackberry  for  its  ability  to 
grow   on   stiff,   wet   soils ;  the   black   gum    for   its   thick 


FlG.  137.  —  The  Wrong  Method 

OF    ATTACHING    FENCE    WiRE     TO       FiG.    138.  —  ThE   PROPER    METHOD 

A  Tree  of  attaching  Fence  Wire 


210 


AGRICULTURE 


Fic.  139.  —  Find  ik  thb  Above  Ficcses  the  Following  Leaves 
White  oak,  hickory,  prran,  red  oak,  black  gum,  sweet  gum,  chinqurpin,  water 
oak,  sycamore,  maple,  "  yellow  poplar  "  (tulip  tree),  dogwood,  elm,  pereim- 
mon,  post  oak. 


FOREST   TREES 


211 


rounded  top  and  the  beautiful  color  of  its  leaves  in  autumn ; 
the  red  maple  for  its  red  flowers  and  seeds  and  its  brightly 
colored  leaves  in  the  fall.     These  trees  and  many  other 


Fig.  140. — A  Long-leaf  Pine 


Fig.  141.  —  Young  Hickories 


212 


AGRICULTURE 


kinds  may  so  change  the  school  yard  that  it  will  become 
one  of  the  most  attractive  spots  in  the  neighborhood. 

Trees    for    posts    and  other  farm  uses.  —  In   planting 
young  trees  on  the  farm  for  fence  posts  choose  between 


X 

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Fig.  14a.  —  Showing  Sprkauing  P'orm  of  some  Oaks  when  not  csowded 

catalpa,  black  locust,  osage  orange,  and  mulberry.  Posts 
made  from  these  trees  last  for  a  long  time.  Cedar  makes 
excellent  posts  and  is  very  valuable  for  making  pencils. 
It  grows  slowly  and  should  not  be  set  out  on  a  farm  where 
apples  are  grown.  The  wood  of  the  walnut  is  very  valu- 
able for  furniture.  To  make  shade  quickly  in  the  pastures, 
where  beauty  is  not  important,  the  cottonwood,  chinaberry, 
and  catalpa  are  suitable. 


FOREST  TREES 


213 


The  trees  as  friends.  —  To  get  all  the  pleasure  possible 
out  of  life  in  the  country,  know  and  love  the  trees.     Know 


1^ 

'M 

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rr^^^ 

"%!  \i>\"^   /  'i 

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Fig.  143.  —  A  Walnut  Tree 


them  by  their  leaves  (Fig.  139),  their  branches,  their  bark, 
and  their  seeds.     Notice  which  kinds  are  found  on  the  dry 


214  AGRICULTURE 

hills  and  which  in  the  wet  bottoms.  Observe  how  they 
struggle  up  toward  the  light.  Notice  the  difference  in  the 
forms  of  those  that  stand  alone,  flooded  with  sunshine  (Fig. 
142),  and  those  starved  for  light  in  the  deep  shadow  of  the 
crowded  forest.  Even  in  winter  the  trees  are  interesting. 
The  different  trees  may  be  recognized  in  the  distance 
by  the  differences  in  their  habits  of  branching.  For  ex- 
ample, notice  the  continuous  central  stem  in  the  pine  and 
hickory  (Figs.  140  and  141),  and  observe  that  in  the  walnut 
(Fig.  143)  and  elm  this  is  usually  lost. 

Exercise.  —  Compare  the  leaves  in  Fig.  139  with  the  leaves  found  in 
the  woods,  and  write  in  your  notebook  the  name  that  corresponds  to 
each  letter.  You  will  find  it  interesting  and  instructive  to  make  a  map 
of  the  trees  growing  on  a  small  area  of  woodland,  representing  the 
position  of  each  tree  by  a  figure  on  the  map ;  then  on  the  next  page  of 
your  notebook  write  the  name  of  the  tree  corresponding  to  each 
number.  You  may  be  surprised  to  find  which  pupil  knows  the  greatest 
number  of  trees  in  such  a  contest. 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  Strive  to  inculcate  in  the  pupils  the  habit 
of  carefully  observing  trees.  Among  the  means  to  this  end  are  the  col- 
lecting and  identifying  of  the  leaves  of  trees,  excursions  to  the  woods,  and 
recognition  of  trees  by  their  bark.  The  mode  of  branching  of  different 
kinds  and  with  different  surroundings  may  be  taught  by  requiring  pupils 
to  draw  outlines  of  trees.  A  drawing  exercise  may  take  the  place  of  a 
recitation.  Let  the  pupils  complete  the  maps  of  the  school  grounds 
begun  as  an  exercise  in  Section  XXXI 1 1  and  write  on  it,  on  each  spot 
where  a  tree  is  needed,  the  kind  of  tree  that  each  pupil  prefers. 


SECTION   XXXVII.     FRUITS 


It  is  possible  to  have  a  constant  succession  of  fruit  at 
very  little  expense  by  taking  the  best  possible  care  of  a 
few  rows  of  strawberries,  grapes,  and  a  small  orchard  of 


1 

^^KV 

IHkv 

'  Hflimti 

. '     -a'  ■ 

1 

^1^^^ 

\uk- 

'^ 

1 

Hfltfl 

^  ■ 

' 

'  t'    '■  .  .              '■ 

1 

Fig.  144.  —  Picking  Apples  in  Arkansas 

fruit  trees.  In  the  collection  of  fruits  there  could  be 
strawberries,  raspberries,  grapes,  scuppernong  grapes, 
peaches,    plums,    apples,    pears,    Japanese    persimmons, 

215 


2l6  AGRICULTURE 

pomegranates,  and  pecans.  It  costs  but  little  to  buy  the 
trees  and  other  plants  needed.  Make  selections  from  the 
catalogues  of  reliable  nurserymen,  not  too  far  away. 

For  success  in  fruit  growing  there  must  be  (i)  wise  selec- 
tion of  suitable  varieties,  (2)  careful  planting,  (3)  regular 


I'h 


Fig.  145.  —  Young  Peach  Orchard  with  Cucuubeu., , 

and  intelligent  pruning,  (4)  cultivation  and  fertilization, 
and  (5)  spraying  to  destroy  injurious  insects  and  plant 
diseases.  A  small  orchard  for  home  use  should  contain 
a  number  of  varieties,  so  that  there  may  be  early,  medium, 
and  late  fruit. 

Cultivation  and  fertilization.  —  Before  planting  fruit 
trees  the  land  must  be  deeply  plowed  and  well  harrowed. 
Peach   trees    are  generally  set  about  16  feet  apart  each 


FRUITS 


217 


way  and  apple  trees  25  to  40  feet.  On  rather  poor 
land  fruit  trees  ought  to  be  fertilized  when  set  and  each 
year  afterwards.  For  young  trees  a  complete  fertilizer 
is  best.  In  later  years  a  mixture  of  phosphate  and  some 
form  of  potash  may  be  sufficient.  Nitrogen  should  then 
be  supplied  by  cow- 
peas  or  some  other 
"catch  crop"  grown 
as  a  fertilizer  be- 
tween the  trees. 
Scatter  the  fertili- 
zer as  far  out  as  the 
limbs  extend  and 
work  it  in  with  a 
cultivator  or  harrow. 
For  a  few  years  a 
low-growing,  culti- 
vated crop,  for  ex- 
ample, cotton  or 
vegetables,  may  be 
grown  between  the 
rows  of  trees  (Fig. 
145).  When,  how- 
ever, the  trees  get 
larger,  they  need  all  the  space;  and  the  orchard  should 
be  kept  well  cultivated  until  July,  when  Iron  cowpeas 
may  be  sown  as  a  fertilizing  crop  to  be  plowed  under 
the  next  spring. 

Strawberries.  —  The   strawberry    is    the    earliest   fruit, 
some  varieties  ripening  in  April  in  the  central  part  of  the 


Photograph  by  R.  S.  Mackintosh 

Fig.  146.  —  A  Field  of  Strawberries  in  South- 
ER^f  Alabama 


ai8 


AGRICULTURE 


Gulf  states.     Strawberry  plants  are  increased  by  means  of 
runners  which   take   root   near   the   end.     These   rooted 


Photofraph  by  R  8.  Mackiototh 

Fio.  147.  —  Strawberries  crated  for  Shipping 

young  plants  are  set  about  two  feet  apart,  in  rows  about 
three  feet  apart.  They  may  be  set  in  the  Southern  states 
any  time  between  November  and  the  last  of  February. 
Those  set   after  Christmas   make  only  a  few  berries  the 


FRUITS  219 

first  year.  Those  set  in  the  fall  bear  a  few  more  berries, 
but  there  is  only  a  fraction  of  a  crop  the  first  spring. 
The  main  crop  is  borne  the  second  year. 

Some  varieties  of  strawberries  produce  flowers  contain- 
ing pistils,  but  no  perfect  stamens.  Among  these  imperfect 
or  pistillate  varieties,  every  third  or  fourth  row  should  be 
planted  with  perfect  kinds  to  furnish  pollen.  Perfect 
varieties  are  marked  in  most  catalogues  with  the  letter  "s," 
meaning  that  the  variety  bears  stamens  as  well  as  pistils, 
or  by  the  letter  "  d,"  meaning  bi-sexual,  or  having  two 
sexes.  The  names  of  the  imperfect  varieties  are  followed 
by  the  letter  "/,"  which  here  stands  for  the  word  "  pis- 
tillate." •  For  home  use  there  should  be  both  early  and 
late  varieties.  The  following  are  all  among  the  staminate 
or  perfect  varieties  :  Excelsior  (early),  Lady  Thompson 
and  Klondike  (rather  early  and  hardy),  Gandy  (large  and 
late). 

Strawberry  plants  need  to  be  well  fertilized  with  a  com- 
plete fertilizer.  The  bed  should  be  renewed  every  few 
years  because  young  plants  bear  more  fruit  than  old  ones. 
To  start '  a  new  bed  set  the  young  plants  that  form 
where  the  runners  take  root. 

When  a  fruit  tree  is  old  enough  to  transplant.  —  A 
nurseryman  does  not  count  the  age  of  a  tree  from  the 
time  the  seed  is  planted,  but  from  the  time  of  budding  or 
grafting  it.  Peach  trees  are  ready  to  transplant  one  year 
after  the  budding  has  been  done.  The  apple  tree  is  trans- 
planted when  either  one,  two,  or  three  years  old. 

Setting  a  fruit  tree.  —  The  time  to  set  a  fruit  tree 
is  after  the  leaves  fall  and  before  the  buds  swell  in  the 


220 


AGRICULTURE 


spring  to  form  new  leaves.  The  period  from  November 
to  February  is  the  usual  time  for  setting  fruit  trees  in  the 
Southern  states.     The  holes  should  be  so  dug  that  the 


Fio.  148. 


Photofrmph  by  K   -^    '■I 

Packino  Peaches  in  Bollock  County,  Ala. 


roots  will  not  need  to  be  bent.  All  bruised  or  broken 
roots  should  be  cut  off  with  a  smooth  cut,  which  heals 
more  quickly  than  a  ragged  break. 


FRUITS  221 

The  very  long  roots  may  also  be  cut  back.  In  setting 
trees  keep  all  roots  straight.  The  earth  taken  from  near 
the  top  of  the  hole  is  generally  the  richest,  so  this  soil 
should  be  placed  near  the  roots.  The  earth  must  be  firmly 
packed  around  the  roots  so  as  to  keep  them  thoroughly 
moist.  If  the  soil  were  put  in  without  packing,  air-spaces 
would  be  left  and  the  roots  would  become  dry.  The  upper 
layer  of  soil,  however,  must  be  left  loose  as  a  mulch  to  re- 
tain the  water  in  the  lower  layers.  If  a  tree  is  loosened 
before  it  has  formed  a  full  set  of  roots,  it  is  apt  to  die 
because  the  shaking  causes  air-spaces  to  be  left  around 
the  roots  instead  of  moist  soil.  The  tree  ought  to  be  set 
in  the  ground  at  least  as  deep  as  it  grew  in  the  nursery  row. 

Pruning  at  the  time  of  transplanting.  —  When  a  young 
tree  is  dug  up,  a  large  proportion  of  its  fine  roots  and 
root-hairs  are  broken  or  stripped  off.  When  it  is  trans- 
planted, there  will  not  be  at  first  enough  feeding  roots  to 
supply  food  and  water  to  all  the  leaves.  The  top  of  the 
tree  should,  therefore,  be  cut  back  to  balance  the  loss  of 
roots.  The  cutting  off  of  some  of  the  limbs  is  called 
pruning.  Most  fruit  trees  at  the  time  of  transplanting 
have  to  be  severely  pruned  in  order  (i)  to  keep  the  leaf 
surface  balanced  with  the  feeding  roots,  and  (2)  to  cause 
the  tree  to  grow  in  the  desired  shape. 

Shaping  the  young  tree.  —  When  young  apple  and  peach 
trees  are  not  pruned  the  central  shoot  grows  more  rapidly 
than  the  side  branches.  This  forms  a  tall,  slender  tree, 
with  few  limbs,  which  bend  and  break  when  heavily  loaded 
with  fruit.  Much  of  the  fruit  on  unpruned  trees  is  borne 
too  high  to  be  easily  gathered.    To  prevent  these  troubles, 


222 


AGRICULTURE 


the  young  apple  or  peach  tree  is  cut  off  at  a  height  of 
16  to  24  inches  above  the  ground.  The  cutting  of  the 
central  shoot  makes  the  side  branches  grow 
more  rapidly  and  nearer  to  the  ground. 
The  lower  limbs  should  be  close  to  the 
ground  in  order  to  shade  the  body  or  trunk. 
If  the  tree  is  very  young  and  small  when 
transplanted,  all  the  side  branches  are  also 
cut  off  close  to  the  main 
stem  (Fig.  149).  The  buds 
near  the  top  of  this  stub  or 
Fig.  149— CtosE  whip  will  soon  grow  out  and 

Pru.vinc  ,         ,  ,  .      ,  .  . 

take  the  places  of  the  side 
branches  that  were  cut  off.  The  number  of 
limbs  can  be  controlled  by 
rubbing  off  all  the  buds  ex- 
cept the  number  desired.  In 
pruning  a  young  tree,  three, 
four,   or   five   of   these    buds  Fig.  150.  — Stub 

Pruning 


y. 


N 


/ 


^^mh 


should  be  allowed  to  grow 
into  limbs.  The  buds  selected  to  grow 
should  be  evenly  distributed  around  the 
stem.  If  the  young  tree  is  well  grown  when 
::tP^  transplanted,  its  branches  are  cut  off  six  to 

Fig.  151.— o.ve  eight  inches  from  the  main  stem  (Fig.  150). 
Year  after       Later  pruning.  —  The  usual  time  to  prune 

SETTING  «-  O  r 

To  be  pruned  as  ^^^^^  trces  is  during  the  latter  part  of  the 

shown    by   the  winter.    After  the  transplanted  trees  have 

been  growing   for  about   one  year   in    the 

orchard,  they  usually  need  to  be  pruned  again.     All  of  the 


FRUITS 


223 


three  to  five  side  branches  already  selected  for  growth  should 
be  cut  back  until  only  about  eight  to  twelve  inches  of  their 
new  growth  is  left  (Fig.  151).  At  the  end  of  each  year  the 
new  peach  twigs,  if  they  have  made  much  growth,  will 
need  to  be  cut  back  to  about  half  their  length.  Every 
winter  cut  out  from  any  kind  of  fruit  tree  all  the  branches 
that  are  partly  broken,  too  close  together,  or  growing  across 
the  center  of  the  tree,  and  all  twigs  that  are  diseased. 

The  later  pruning  of  trees  is  chiefly  (i)  to  regulate  the 
shape,  (2)  to  make  the  center  of 
the  tree  open  enough  to  admit  the 
light,  and  (3)  to  thin  the  fruit. 
Wherever  a  branch  is  removed, 
the  cut  surface  must  be  left  smooth 
and  as  close  to  the  parent  branch 
as  possible.  No  projection  or  stub 
must  be  left.  A  smooth,  close 
wound  is  soon  healed  and  covered 
over ;  but  a  stub  is  not  easily 
covered,  and  decay  starts  in  such 
a  wound  (Fig.  152).  When  a  large 
branch  is  cut  off,  the  wound  should 
be  covered  with  thick  white  lead 
paint,  to  keep  the  germs  of  decay 
from  getting  into  the  tree. 

In  pruning  a  fruit  tree  the  bud  left  farthest  out  on  the 
branch  is  the  one  that  will  grow  most  rapidly  and  become 
the  leader.  The  limbs  can  be  made  to  bend  downward  more 
than  they  naturally  would  by  making  the  cut  just  beyond  a 
bud  which  points  downward.     Likewise  the  growth  can  be 


Fig.  152.  —  Poor  Pruning 


224 


AGRICULTURE 


made  more  upright  by  cutting  so  as  to  leave  as  the  last  re- 
maining bud  one  that  points  upward  (Fig.  153).  In  the 
same  way  you  can  often  fill  in  an  un- 
occupied space  on  one  side  of  a  tree 
by  selecting  for  leaders  the  buds  that 
point  towards  that  space. 

Fruits  that  most  need  pruning. — 
Peach  trees,  grapevines,  raspberries, 
and  cultivated  blackberries  need  prun- 
ing every  year.  Apple  trees  need 
less  after  the  first  few  years,  and 
shade  and  nut  trees  require  very  little 
pruning. 


Fio.     153.  —  Pruning    to 

DIKECT     THE     GROWTH 


Exercise.  —  Perhaps  you  can  find  a 
young  peach  tree  growing  wild  and  can 
practice  pruning  on  this.     Ask  some  one  at 

^     .  ,  , ,  .    home  to  show  vou  how  to  prune  the  trees  and 

On  right,  pruned  for  upward  .  •     ' ,       i  ,       .        .    ,        , 

growth ;  on  left,  pruned    grapevines  in  the  home  orchard.     Ask  why 
for  outward  growth.  ^^ev  prune  in  a  certain  way ;  also  when  they 

prune,  and  why. 
Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  If  there  is  near  the  school  a  carefully 
pruned  orchard,  it  may  be  well  worth  an  excursion  to  see  it.  and  doubt- 
less its  owner  will  give  an  exhibition  of  pruning.  Farmers'  Bulletin  No. 
181  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  on  pruning,  will 
be  useful  to  the  teacher  and  to  any  pupils  who  desire  to  improve  the 
orchard  at  home. 


SECTION  XXXVIII.     THE   CAUSES   OF 
DISEASES    OF    PLANTS^ 

Most  plants  have  a  green  color  and  thrive  in  the  light. 
Certain  very  small  plants,  called  ftin'gl,  however,  have  no 
green  color.  Among  them  are  the  tiny  plants  that  cause 
rotting  of  fruit,  spotting  and  dying  of  leaves,  rust,  and  smut 
of  grain.  Since  they  have  no  green  substance  enabling 
them  to  use  the  carbon  from  the  air,  they  cannot  make  their 
own  living.  Instead  they  draw  their  nourishment  from  the 
sap  and  substances  already  made  by  green  plants.  There- 
fore they  rob  the  plants  on  which  they  grow  and  cause 
various  diseases,  which  may  affect  the  leaves,  stems,  or 
fruits  of  useful  plants. 

Molds. — Among  the  fungi  are  certain  molds.  Fruit 
mold,  or  bread  mold,  is  made  up  of  a  mass  of  fine  white 
threads,  some  of  the  short  branches  of  which  bear  tiny 
black  heads.  These  contain  the  spores,  dust-like  bodies 
from  which  another  crop  of  fungi  grows.  Spores  are  to 
fungi  what  seeds  are  to  plants.  The  spores  of  mold  and 
of  most  fungi  are  so  small  and  light  that  they  are  blown 
everywhere  by  the  wind.  This  explains  why  plant  diseases 
are  so  "catching,"  or  contagious. 

Some  fungi  cannot  grow  through  the  skin  of  fruits,  but 
need  to  have  their  spores  planted  in  cuts  or  bruises. 
Other  kinds  are  able  to  force  their  way  through  the  skin. 
Very    often  they  push   in   through   the    "  gateways "   or 

1  The  five  sections  on  plant  diseases  were  written  by  Dr.  B.  M.  Duggar  of 
the  faculty  of  Cornell  University. 

Q  225 


226 


AGRICULTURE 


pores  in  the   leaves  of   plants.     Once   inside  the  fruit 
or   leaf,  they  grow  and   nourish    themselves   by  absorb- 


FiG.  154. —  Results  of  Spraying  for  Late  Blight  or  Irish  Potatoes 
The  plants  in  the  center  were  not  sprayed;  those  on  both  sides  were  sprayed. 

ing  the  food  material  formed  by  the  green  plant.  They 
steal  the  food  which  the  plant  had  prepared  for  its  own 
use. 


THE   CAUSES   OF  DISEASES   OF  PLANTS  22/ 

Killing  fungi  with  poisons.  —  Fortunately  the  spores  of 
most  kinds  of  plant  diseases  will  not  grow  in  contact  with 
certain  substances.  Two  of  the  best  of  these  chemicals 
used  to  destroy  fungus  spores  are  bluestone  (copper  sul- 
fate) and  formalin.  The  buds,  the  fruit,  or  the  leaves 
are  sprayed  with  a  mixture  containing  bluestone.  If  this 
is  done  before  the  fungus  plant  has  passed  through  the 
skin  of  the  fruit,  the  crop  is  often  saved.  Seeds  of  oats 
from  a  smutty  crop  are  dampened  with  formalin  to  kill  the 
spores  on  the  seed.  The  white  mildew  on  the  leaves  of 
the  rose  is  easily  killed  by  sprinkhng  on  it  a  solution  of 
one  ounce  of  liver  of  sulfur  to  two  gallons  of  water. 

Prevention  of  plant  diseases  easier  than  cure.  —  In  most 
cases,  however,  it  is  useless  to  try  to  cure  plant  diseases 
by  treatment  after  the  fungi  have  entered  the  green  plant, 
where  no  poisons  can  reach  them.  Spraying  fruit  trees  is 
done  to  prevent,  and  not  to  cure,  diseases.  The  poison 
generally  used  to  ward  off  diseases  of  fruit  trees,  Irish 
potatoes,  and  others  is  Bordeaux  mixture,  which  contains 
bluestone  (see  Appendix). 

Weak  plants  become  diseased.  —  Plants  that  are  thrifty 
and  well  nourished  are  less  apt  to  catch  certain  plant 
diseases  than  those  that  are  weak,  starved,  or  unwisely 
fertilized.  There  are  many  diseases  of  plants  that  are  not 
due  to  germs.  These  are  generally  due  to  poor  drainage 
or  other  unfavorable  conditions  of  soil  or  climate.  Such 
diseases  are  not  contagious. 

Fungous  diseases  spread  rapidly  because  of  the  light 
spores,  which  are  blown  or  carried  great  distances. 
Nearly  all  the  peaches  in  an  orchard  may  be  ruined  by  rot 


228  AGRICULTURE 

during  a  few  weeks  of  damp  weather,  which  makes  most 
germs  of  plant  diseases  grow  more  rapidly.  No  matter 
how  damp  the  weather,  there  will  be  no  peach-rot  unless 
the  spores  or  seed  bodies  arc  first  sown.  A  few  fungi  are 
useful.  Some  kinds  sour  milk  so  that  it  can  be  churned 
into  butter ;  others,  called  yeasts,  cause  flour  bread  to  rise  ; 
while  still  other  kinds  are  necessary  in  making  vinegar. 

Exercise.  —  Secure  some  half-ripe  sound  peaches  and  place  two  or 
three  of  these  under  tumblers.  At  the  same  time  find  one  which  is  de- 
cayed and  shows  upon  the  surface  tufts  of  a  gray  mold.  Now  with  a 
pocket  knife  touch  the  mold  tufts  of  the  diseased  fruit  and  make  cuts 
in  the  healthy  peaches.  Wrap  the  scratched  peaches  in  a  damp  news- 
paper and  put  them  under  a  can  or  cup  in  a  warm  place.     Do  they  rot? 


Fio.  I5S-  —  ScABLXSS  Applis,  the  Result  or  Tuorouob  Spraying 


SECTION   XXXIX.     SOME   DISEASES   OF 
FRUITS 

One  day  a  brown  spot  may  appear  on  a  fruit,  and  the 
next  the  whole  fruit  may  be  browned  and  decayed.  Mean- 
time there  may  appear  on  the  surface  numerous  gray 
tufts  of  the  mold-like  fungus  spores  (Fig.  156).  These 
light  spores  are  carried  by 
wind  and  insects  to  adja- 
cent healthy  fruits  or  even 
to  fruits  of  distant  trees. 

Brown-rot.  —  The  spores 
spread  the  disease,  and 
during  a  week  of  sultry 
weather  the  peach  crop 
may  be  ruined  by  this  dis- 
ease, called  brown-rot. 

With  age  a  diseased  fruit 
shrivels  and  becomes  what 
is  termed  a  "  mummy." 
These  mummies  hang  on  ^^°'  ^56- 
the  tree  and  there  the  fungus  remains  until  the  next  season, 
ready  then  to  start  a  new  outbreak  of  the  disease.  In  con- 
trolling this  malady,  therefore,  first  remove  and  destroy  or 
cover  up  by  plowing  all  mummied  fruits.  Then  spray  the 
trees  carefully  with  Bordeaux  mixture  before  the  buds  open, 
to  kill  all  germs.    Finally,  spray  during  the  growing  season. 

229 


After  Ga.  Agr.  Expt.  Station 

Brown-rot  on  a  Peach 


230 


AGRICULTURE 


Peaches  and  other  stone  fruits  are  often  injured  by  spray- 
ing 7v/un  leaves  are  on  the  trees. 

Peach  leaf-curl.  —  This  disease  can  be  recognized  by 
the  curling  and  arching  of  the  leaves,  which  later  turn 
dark  and  fall.     The  fruit   shrivels  and   becomes   almost 

worthless.  The  young 
shoots  also  may  become 
diseased.  This  fungus 
establishes  itself  at  the 
time  the  fruit  buds  are 
opening.  It  may  be 
prevented  by  spraying 
the  trees  with  Bordeaux 
mixture  just  before  the 
buds  open  (Figs.  157, 
158). 

Apple-scab.  —  Apple- 
scab  is  very  common 
throughout  the  country 
during  moist  seasons. 
Examine  the  fruit  care- 
fully during  July  and 
August,  and  the  pres- 
ence of  this  disease  will 
be  shown  by  the  scabby  spots  that  do  not  resemble  rot. 
There  is  an  olive-colored  growth  around  these.  Scabby 
spots  may  also  occur  on  the  leaves.  The  apple-scab 
causes  an  enormous  loss,  making  the  apples  misshaped 
and  dwarfed  and  often  reducing  their  selling  price  by 
half.    When  the  scab  begins,  it  may  kill  the  bloom  or 


Fig.  157.  —  A  Peach  Tree  protected 
AGAINST  Leaf-curl  by  Spraying 


SOME   DISEASES   OF   FRUITS 


231 


it  may  cause  the  little  apples  to  fall.  In  ordinary  seasons 
this  disease  is  well  controlled  by  spraying  at  intervals  of 
two  weeks  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 

Bitter-rot  of  the  apple.  — As  the  name  implies,  an  apple 
attacked  by  this  disease  has  a  bitter  taste.  Bitter-rot  is 
worst  in  moist,  warm 
weatlier.  It  begins  as 
a  small  spot  and  rapidly 
spreads  from  fruit  to 
fruit.  Later  the  affected 
area  becomes  flattened 
or  sunken.  A  few  days 
after  the  rot  has  begun, 
there  are  little  circles  of 
black  dots  beginning  to 
appear  at  the  center 
of  the  diseased  spot. 
These  little  dots  contain 
the  spores  which  will 
spread  the  disease.  This 
fungus   also   makes  in-      fig.  158.— Peacu  trkk  not  si-rayed 

juries,     called      cankers,  injured  by  leaf-curl. 

on  the  branches  of  the  apple  tree. 

It  is  estimated  that  bitter-rot  of  apples  has  repeatedly 
caused  damage  to  the  extent  of  ten  million  dollars  a  year. 
It  may  be  controlled  by  the  use  of  Bordeaux  mixture. 

Fire-blight  of  the  pear  and  apple  tree.  —  The  common 
blight  of  pear  and  apple  trees,  which  kills  and  blackens 
the  leaves  and  sometimes  kills  the  pear  tree,  is  caused  by 
germs,  called  bacteria.     This  disease  also  .kills  the  bios- 


233  AGRICULTURE 

soms.  The  germ  is  usually  carried  by  bees  from  a 
diseased  tree  to  a  healthy  flower  of  pear  or  apple.  The 
fungus  grows  into  the  flower  and  on  into  the  twigs.  The 
diseased  twigs  die.  Pear-blight,  unlike  most  diseases,  does 
least  harm  to  trees  that  are  growing  slowly  and  thus  form- 
ing tough,  short  twigs.  Hence,  when  a  grown  pear  tree 
is  attacked,  cultivation  may  be  stopped,  and  no  fertilizer 
rich  in  nitrogen  should  then  be  used. 

Spraying  is  not  a  cure,  but  cutting  in  winter  and  through- 
out the  growing  season  all  the  diseased  twigs  helps  to  con- 
trol the  disease.  Cut  the  twigs  about  one  foot  below  the 
diseased  portion.  After  making  each  cut  kill  any  germs 
that  may  have  lodged  on  the  blade  of  the  pruning  shears 
or  knife.  Do  this  by  dipping  the  blade  into  a  solution 
of  formalin  or  of  carbolic  acid  or  by  wiping  it  on  a  cloth 
dampened  in  a  poisonous  solution.  Thus  you  will  avoid 
spreading  the  disease. 

Exercise.  —  Find,  examine,  and  show  to  your  classmates  specimens 
of  jjeach  '*  mummies,"  rotting  peaches  or  plums,  diseased  apples,  curled 
peach  leaves,  or  spotted  leaves  of  any  fruit  tree.  Do  the  appearances 
suggest  that  you  are  looking  at  the  diseases  here  described? 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  Most  State  Experiment  Stations  will 
identify  diseased  leaves  or  other  specimens  addressed  to  their  bota- 
nists and  will  furnish  bulletins  on  plant  diseases  or  tell  you  where  to 
get  the  bulletins  that  you  may  desire. 


SECTION   XL.     DISEASES   OF   OATS   AND 
WHEAT 

In  a  field  of  ripening  oats  we  can  generally  find 
some  blackened  smutty  heads.  The  black  dust  which  flies 
when  these  are  touched  consists  of  spores,  whose  only 
business  is  to  cause  more  smut  in  next  year's  crop. 
They  lodge  on  healthy  oat  grains  in  the  field  or  while 
the  crop  is  being  thrashed.  Healthy  grains  on  which 
smut  spores  lodge  do  not  become  unhealthy,  but  when 
planted  they  carry  the  smut  spores  close  to  the  sprouting 
plants. 

Oat-smut.  —  The  only  time  when  the  smut  fungus  of 
oats  can  enter  into  the  oat  plant  is  just  at  the  time  of 
sprouting.  If  the  smut  spores  can  be  destroyed  on  the 
seed  to  be  planted,  not  a  single  head  of  smut  will  appear 
in  the  field,  and  the  yield  of  oats  will  be  increased  six  to 
twenty-five  per  cent.  These  germs  on  the  seed  can  be 
killed  either  with  scalding  water  or  with  formalin.  Do 
this  by.  soaking  the  seed  for  ten  minutes  in  hot  water  that 
a  thermometer  shows  to  be  between  132  and  135  degrees. 
Or  smut  may  be  entirely  prevented  by  thoroughly  wetting 
the  seed  oats  in  water  to  which  one  ounce  of  formalin  has 
been  added  for  every  three  gallons  of  water.  After  treat- 
ing seeds  with  formalin  keep  them  moist  and  covered  with 
cloth  for  about  two  hours,  so  that  gases  from  the  formalin 

233     . 


234 


AGRICULTURE 


may  better  kill  the  smut  spores.      This   treatment   costs 
only  a  cent  or  two  for  each  bushel  of  seed.     Oat-smut  is 
shown  in  Fig.  159. 
Concealed  smut  of  wheat.  —  The  wheat  smut  which  is 
most  injurious  is  not  readily  observed.     Here, 
too,  the  spores  of  the  fungus  replace  the  kernel, 
but  the  seed-coats,  or  kernel  coverings,  conceal 
the  disease.     On  crushing  one  of  the  diseased 
"  kernels "  the  spores  will   be   found   and  the 
unpleasant    odor   that   arises   will    not   be   for- 
gotten.    Concealed  smut  may  be  prevented  by 
dipping  or  soaking  the  seeds  in  a  solution  of 
bluestone. 

Other  diseases.  —  Among  other  diseases  of 
wheat  and  oats  are  several  forms  of  rust,  also 
due  to  fungi.  You  may  be  able  to  find  speci- 
mens of  rust  and  to  compare  them  with  the 
smuts. 

No  treatment  has  been  found  to  prevent  the 
rusts  of  grain.  Some  varieties  are  more  injured 
by  rust  than  others.  Those  that  ripen  early 
oftenest  escape  severe  injury.  If  you  should 
find  a  wheat  or  oat  plant  that  is  free  from  rust 
while  all  others  around  it  are  diseased,  your 
Fic.  IS9.    discovery  may  give  rise  to  a  genuine  rust-proof 

SmuttvOats  ^^^j^^y 

Exercise.  —  When  wheat  or  oats  have  formed  heads,  count  the 
number  of  smutted  heads  on  a  square  foot  or  square  yard  of  surface. 
Estimate  how  much  the  yield  will  probably  be  reduced  by  smut.  Are 
the  other  stems  ever  stunted  on  a  plant  having  one  diseased  head  ?  Look 
for  rusted  leaves  or  stems  of  wheat  or  oats. 


DISEASES   OF   OATS   AND   WHEAT  235 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  If  you  can  get  the  promise  of  some  farmer 
to  sow  half  an  acre  of  smutty  oat  seed  and  an  acre  alongside  with  seeds 
that  have  been  treated  for  smut,  your  State  Experiment  Station  may 
possibly  be  able  to  send  you  the  necessary  formalin.  Or  you  can  ask 
certain  pupils  simply  with  the  aid  of  a  borrowed  thermometer  to  scald 
the  seed  for  this  test.  If  you  have  a  sciiool  garden,  plant  in  it  treated 
and  untreated  oat  seed.  Let  different  pupils  plant  the  two  kinds  of 
seed,  so  that  disease  germs  may  not  be  carried  from  the  untreated  to 
the  treated  seed. 


SECTION   XLI.      DISEASES   OF   IRISH   AND 
SWEET   POTATOES 

The  scab  of  Irish  potatoes.  —  Irish  potatoes  often  have  a 
surface  covered  with  rough  scabs.  This  is  a  fungous  dis- 
ease. If  a  scabby  potato  is  planted,  both  fungus  and  po- 
tato are  sown  and  the  harvest  will  consist  of  both.  More- 
over, the  fungus  spores  are  apt  to  be  present  in  a  soil  which 
has  recently  produced  scabby  potatoes,  ready  to  injure  the 
next  crop  of  potatoes.  Fortunately  this  disease  is  easily 
prevented.  A  sound  crop  comes  from  smooth,  healthy 
potatoes  in  a  soil  where  scabby  potatoes  have  never  grown. 
For  safety  treat  seed  potatoes  by  soaking  them  two  hours 
in  a  formalin  solution  containing  one  ounce  of  formalin  to 
two  gallons  of  water. 

The  early  blight.  —  This  is  a  common  disease  of  the  leaves 
of  the  Irish  potato.  Round  brown  spots  appear  upon  the 
leaves,  or  irregular  spots  show  on  the  margins.  This  dis- 
ease is  readily  prevented  by  spraying  the  foliage  with 
Hordeaux  mixture.  Paris  green  may  be  added  to  the  mix- 
ture so  as  to  poison  the  potato  beetle  at  the  same  time. 

The  soft-rot  of  sweet  potatoes.  —  Sweet  potatoes  in  stor- 
age are  sometimes  injured  by  the  same  little  black  mold 
often  found  growing  on  bread  or  on  preserves.  When  the 
potatoes  are  stored  where  it  is  too  moist  and  warm,  this 
fungus  grows  upon  them  and  produces  what  is  known  as 

236 


DISEASES   OF   IRISH   AND   SWEET   POTATOES    237 

the  soft-rot,  which  has  an  unpleasant  odor.  This  fungus 
takes  advantage  of  the  so-called  sweating  period,  which 
occurs  a  short  time  after  the  sweet  potatoes  are  dug.  It 
then  finds  an  easy  entrance  through  the  injuries  on  the  sur- 
face or  through  the  broken  end  of  the  root.  From  a  single 
diseased  or  bruised  spot  it  may  spread  with  alarming 
rapidity.  This  disease  is  readily  prevented  by  proper  dry- 
ing of  the  potatoes  for  a  few  days  after  they  are  dug,  be- 
fore placing  them  in  the  lower  temperature  at  which  they 
are  to  be  stored.     Infected  potatoes  should  be  destroyed. 

The  black-rot  of  sweet  potatoes.  —  This  disease  is  really 
a  soil  rot.  The  fungus  doubtless  enters  through  the 
young  rootlets  of  the  growing  plant.  It  finally  becomes 
estabUshed  in  the  potatoes  themselves,  producing  circular 
black  patches.  The  disease  may  even  extend  its  injuries 
after  the  potatoes  are  stored.  Black-rot  is  the  most  de- 
structive fungous  enemy  of  the  sweet  potato,  but  fortunately 
it  has  not  been  found  in  all  localities.  In  order  to  control 
it,  the  potatoes  should  not  be  grown  on  any  field  where 
sweet  potatoes  grew  for  one  or  two  years  before.  More- 
over, the  seed  or  slip  bed  should  be  carefully  watched,  for 
this  disease  may  make  its  appearance  there,  producing  upon 
the  shoots  dark-colored  spots  known  as  "black  shank." 
Set  out  no  slips  from  a  badly  diseased  seed-bed. 

Exercise.  — Find  Irish  and  sweet  potatoes.  Search  them  for  any 
unhealthy  appearance.  If  any  disease  is  found,  does  it  seem  to  be  one 
of  those  described  above? 


SECTION   XLII.      DISEASES  OF  COTTON 

Cotton  wilt.  —  Cotton  wilt,  often  called  black  rot,  causes 
the  plant  to  drop  its  leaves  or  wilt  and  then  dry  up.     Most 


i'liotDgrnph  by  U.S.  I)rp<.  of  Aj[rieultur« 

Fio.  i6o.  —  Os  Left,  a  \  akikty  of  Cotton  Resistant  to  Wilt; 

ON  Right,  Ordinary  Cotton 

Many  of  the  plants  killed  or  stunted  by  wilt. 

plants  die  when  bearing  a  full  load  of  blooms  and  bolls.  The 
disease  occurs  chiefly  in  the  southern  half  of  the  cotton  belt, 
and  as  far  west  as  Louisiana.    It  is  very  common  on  certain 

238 


DISEASES   OF  COTTON 


239 


of  the  islands  on  the  South  Atlantic  coast  where  Sea  Island 
cotton  is  produced. 

The  first  year  that  wilt  occurs  on  a  field  it  attacks  only 
a  single  plant  or  a  small  spot  here  and  there.  The  next 
year  the  spots  where  the  plants  die  are  larger.  In  a  very 
few  years  the  fungus  may  become  so  very  widespread  as 
to  make  it  impossible  to  maintain  a  stand  of  cotton  on 
any  part  of  the  field  (Fig.  160). 

In  the  stem  of  a  cotton  plant  that  has  been  attacked  by 
wilt,  the  woody  portion  is  darkened  or  streaked  with  very 
fine  black  lines.  These  black  lines  are  the  water-carrying 
vessels  that  have  become  stopped  up  by  the  growth  of  the 
fungus.  Their  stoppage  causes  the  plant 
to  wilt  for  lack  of  water.  A  dark  layer 
occurs  just  under  the  bark  (Fig.  161). 
The  germs  of  the  disease  enter  the  plant 
through  the  roots.  Cotton  wilt  is  gener- 
ally considered  worse  on  land  where  the 
tiny  worms  that  produce  knots  on  the 
roots  are  present.  The  germs  probably 
enter  more  readily  through  the  wounds 
made  by  these  root-knot  worms  on  the 
roots  of  the  plant. 

In  some  of  the  affected  areas  in  the 
field  there  may  be  a  few  stalks  which  do  On/ight,   healthy 

•'  plant;onleft, 

not  contract  the  disease.     If  so,  they  are      blackened  by  cotton 
resistant  and  their  seeds  may  transmit  this      ^'^*- 
natural  resistance.     Mark  them  and  very  carefully  pre- 
serve their  seeds  for  planting  purposes.     Different  varie- 
ties of  cotton  show  marked  differences  in  their  ability  to 


Fig.  161. —  Diagonal 
Section  through 
Cotton  Stalks 


340 


AGRICULTURE 


withstand  the  attacks  of  this  fungus.  The  Dixie  (Fig. 
162),  some  strains  of  the  Jackson  variety,  and  some 
varieties  of  Sea  Island  cotton  have  been  made  quite  re- 
sistant to  cotton  wilt  by  years  of  selection. 

Rotation  of   crops   is   generally   the   way   to   decrease 

the  damage  from 
wilt.  However, 
the  germs  of  wilt 
live  in  the  soil 
for  several  years. 
Hence,  in  a  rota- 
tion for  land 
where  this  disease 
occurs,  cotton 
must  not  be  grown 
oftener  than  once 
in  three  or  four 
years.  Neither 
should  the  ordi- 
nary varieties  of  cowpeas  be  grown  in  such  a  rotation,  for  the 
root-knot  worms,  if  present,  increase  rapidly  on  the  cow- 
pea  roots.  This  increases  the  number  of  wounds  on  the 
cotton  roots  the  next  year,  and  hence  probably  the 
number  of  wilt  fungi  entering  the  cotton  plant.  But 
in  a  rotation  of  crops  on  such  a  field,  the  variety  of 
cowpeas  called  Iron,  and  also  the  velvet  bean,  may  well 
be  grown,  because  the  root-knot  worms  do  not  rapidly  in- 
crease on  the  roots  of  these  plants. 

Cotton  root  rot. —  The  farmers  of  Texas  and  Oklahoma 
are  not  troubled  with  cotton  wilt.     Instead,  their  cotton 


Fig.  163. 


Dixie,  a  Wilt-kesistant  Variety  of 
Cotton 


DISEASES   OF   COTTON 


241 


often  suffers  from  another  disease,  which,  in  appearance, 
is  very  similar  to  the  wilt.  This  is  the  well-known  root 
rot,  or  "  dying  "  of  cotton.  The  symptoms  of  this  disease 
also  are  sudden  wilting  followed  by  the  death  and  brown- 
ing of  the  whole  stalk.  Plants  die  from  this  disease  about 
the  time  that  the  first 
bolls  begin  to  open. 
It  seems  to  be  most 
common  in  the  black- 
waxy,  and  other  stiff 
soils. 

The  method  of  its 
attack  is  very  different 
from  that  of  the  cotton 
wilt.  Over  the  whole 
root  system,  and  par- 
ticularly covering  the 
larger  roots,  are  found 
brownish  yellow 
threads,  or  a  fuzzy 
growth  of  the  fungus. 
The  threads  of  the 
fungus  penetrate  the 
bark  and  even  extend 
into  the  wood  of  the  roots;  the  younger  roots  are 
promptly  killed  (Fig.  163).  Wilting  is  due  to  the  failure 
of  the  roots  to  furnish  the  usual  supply  of  water. 

The  fungus  has  been  found  on  practically  all  varieties 
of  cotton,  but  methods  have  been  discovered  for  lessen- 
ing  the   loss.     It  grows   best   and    injures   cotton   most 


Photo  by  A.  B.  Shear 

Fig.  163.  — Roots  of  a  Cotton  Plant 
attacked  by  root  rot 


242  AGRICULTURE 

where  the  soil  contains  little  air,  that  is,  where  the  soil 
packs  down  heavily,  or  where  the  land  has  been  poorly 
prepared  for  the  growth  of  cotton.  Therefore,  better  cir- 
culation of  air  in  the  soil  is  needed.  This  can  be  attained 
by  deep  plowing,  thorough  cultivation,  and  the  addition  of 
stable  manure  or  vegetable  matter.  Rotation  of  crops  is 
necessary.  Such  a  rotation  should  not  include  alfalfa, 
sweet  potatoes,  or  other  plants  on  which  this  fungus  can 
live.  On  land  where  cotton  root  rot  occurs,  corn,  the  small 
grains,  sorghum,  the  true  grasses,  and  many  other  similar 
crops  may  be  grown. 

Cotton  boll  rot.  —  The  boll  rot  is  a  very  common  disease 
in  moist  seasons.  It  is  most  severe  in  moist  bottom  lands 
where  the  large  plants  shade  the  ground  and  the  bolls. 
The  careful  observer  will  notice  first  upon  the  boll  small 
water-soaked  spots,  and  as  these  spots  increase  in  size 
they  become  gray  at  the  center  and  finally  pink,  with  a 
purple  border.  The  pink  or  gray  coating  is  evidence  of 
the  abundant  production  of  fungus  spores.  These  spores 
are  blown  about,  or  spread  by  insects,  thus  planting  the 
disease  wherever  they  fall  upon  cotton  bolls  surrounded 
by  sufficient  moisture  and  warmth  to  make  the  spores 
develop.  The  boll  rots  and  the  contents  are  ruined. 
Varieties  differ  somewhat  in  the  extent  to  which  they 
take  the  disease.  Wide  spaces  between  rows  may  de- 
crease boll  rot  by  letting  in  more  sunlight. 

Black  rust.  —  This  is  the  disease  that  so  generally 
causes  the  cotton  plant  gradually  to  drop  its  leaves. 
The  leaves  turn  pale  or  yellow,  and  then  blacken  and 
die.     Black  rust  is  not  started  by  germs.     After  a  plant 


DISEASES   OF   COTTON  243 

has  been  made  weak  and  unhealthy  by  unfavorable  soil  or 
other  surroundings,  the  rust  fungus  enters  the  leaves  and 
completes  their  destruction.  Rust  is  largely  a  disease  of 
poor  land,  and  can  be  prevented  on  some  soils  by  adding 
vegetable  matter  or  potash. 

Exercise.  —  Ask  your  parents  which  of  these  diseases  occur  near 
your  home.  On  what  kinds  of  soil  is  each  one  worst  ?  If  diseased 
plants  are  found,  exa.mine  them  in  the  field  where  they  grow.  Do  not 
take  them  to  school  for  fear  of  spreading  the  disease. 


SECTION  XLIII.     GERMS   IN  THE  SOIL 

The  farmer  could  not  grow  profitable  crops  without  the 
help  of  several  kinds  of  germs  that  live  in  the  soil.  Some 
of  these  live  in  the  tubercles  on  the  roots  of  leguminous 
plants  and  change  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  into  fertilizer 
nitrogen.  These  might  be  called  the  nitrogen-trapping 
germs  because  they  catch  or  trap  the  nitrogen  gas. 

Nitrate-forming  germs.  —  Other  kinds  of  bacteria  that 
work  faithfully  for  the  farmer  may  be  called  the  nitrate- 
forming  germs.  These  finally  change  certain  compounds 
in  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil  into  nitrates^  the  only  form 
in  which  most  plants  can  use  nitrogen.  The  heaviest 
growth  of  cowpeas  or  clover  might  be  plowed  under  as  fer- 
tilizer, and  the  plants  growing  on  that  field  the  next  season 
could  not  use  a  pound  of  its  nitrogen  if  there  were  no 
nitrate-forming  germs.  These  germs  are  too  small  to  see, 
so  small  indeed  that  many  millions  have  been  found  in  a 
thimbleful  of  soil.  The  farmer  should  care  for  these  tiny 
useful  plants  that  are  helping  him  to  grow  larger  crops. 

Helping  our  friends  in  the  soil.  —  Men  who  have  spent 
their  lives  in  studying  these  tiny  plants  under  powerful 
microscopes  have  found  that  what  the  nitrate-forming 
germs  need  in  order  to  increase  rapidly  and  to  help  the 
soil  and  the  crop  are  the  following  :  — 


GERMS   IN   THE   SOIL  245 

(i)  An  abundance  of  vegetable  matter  for  the  germs  to 
feed  on  and  to  change  into  fertilizer. 

(2)  A  soil  that  is  always  moist,  but  well  drained. 

(3)  A  soil  kept  so  loose  and  well  drained  that  air  can 
circulate  in  it. 

(4)  An  abundance  of  Ume  to  keep  the  soil  from  becom- 
ing sour. 

(5)  A  warm  temperature. 

Germ  enemies  in  the  soil.  —  The  soil  is  not  dead.  It 
swarms  with  living  creatures.  Some  are  friends,  some  foes. 
If  the  farmer  helps  the  friendly  germs,  they  rapidly  in- 
crease and  almost  drive  out  some  of  the  harmful  germs. 
But  if  he  allows  his  land  to  remain  long  very  wet  or  very 
compact  or  very  deficient  in  vegetable  matter,  his  enemies 
in  the  soil  will  increase  to  enormous  numbers  and  his 
friends  will  be  banished. 

Nitrate  destroyers.  —  For  example,  there  are  germs  that 
are  harmful  because  they  change  the  valuable  nitrates  into 
useless  nitrogen  gas.  Thus  they  undo  the  good  work  that 
the  nitrate-forming  germs  have  done.  These  harmful 
kinds,  or  nitrate  destroyers,  do  not  thrive  in  a  soil  where 
there  is  plenty  of  air.  The  farmer  must  fight  these  by  the 
means  that  help  the  friendly  germs,  by  drainage,  plowing, 
cultivation,  and  by  the  addition  of  vegetable  matter. 


SECTION   XLIV.    WHAT  AN  INSECT  IS» 

Many  persons  regard  insects  only  as  troublesome  pests, 
always  to  be  considered  as  enemies.  To  the  farmer,  how- 
ever, a  large  majority  of  the  insects  are  really  not  enemies. 
Many  of  them  are  his  friends,  although  others  are  serious 
enemies  of  health  and  crops.  All  of  them  are  interesting, 
and  some  of  them  very  beautiful.  A  few  general  facts 
about  aiding  our  insect  friends  and  destroying  our  insect 
enemies  will  be  of  value. 

What  an  insect  is.  —  Thrde  great  divisions  are  made  to 
include  all  natural  things,  that  is,  the  animal^  the  vegetable^ 
and  the  mineral  kingdoms.  All  insects  belong  to  the 
animal  kingdom.  They  are,  therefore,  animals,  of  which 
class  they  form  much  the  largest  group.  In  fact,  there  are 
more  kinds  of  insects  than  of  all  other  animals  and  of  all 
plants  put  together.  It  is  the  abundance  of  insects  and 
their  close  relationship  to  our  health  and  welfare  that 
make  it  so  important  for  us  to  study  them. 

Insects  are  never  very  large  and  rarely  exceed  a  few 
inches  in  length  or  breadth.  Many  of  them  are  so  small 
that  a  magnifying  glass  or  lens  is  needed  to  see  them 
clearly.  Most  insects  have  wings  when  they  are  in  the 
full-grown  or  adult  stage,  but  some  never  have  these  in  any 

>The  MCtions  on  insects  [XLIV  to  U  inclusive]  were  written  by  Dr.  W. 
E.  Hinds,  Profewor  of  Entomology  in  Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute. 

246 


WHAT   AN   INSECT   IS  247 

Stage  of  their  existence.  When  wings  are  present,  there 
may  be  either  one  or  two  pairs.  Nearly  all  insects  have 
legs ;  six  is  the  usual  number.  These  two  characteristics, 
the  presence  of  wings  and  of  six  legs,  are  sufficient  to  identify 
an  insect.  There  are  insects,  however,  that  lack  wings 
and  legs. 

Spiders  and  mites  not  insects. — The  only  creatures  likely 
to  be  mistaken  for  insects  are  the  spiders  and  mites.  These 
never  have  wings  and  always  have  eight  legs.  By  simply 
counting  legs,  then,  spiders  may  be  separated  from  the 
wingless  insects. 

The  principal  parts  of  an  insect.  —  The  body  is  divided 
into  three  parts:  the  liead,  the  thorax,  and  the  abdo'men 
(Fig.  164).  The  head  bears  the  eyes,  the 
antcn'ncB,  or  feelers,  and  the  mouth 
parts.  To  the  tho'rax,  or  chest,  of  the 
insect  are  attached  the  wings  and  the 
legs,  but  both  wings  and  legs  are  en- 
tirely wanting  in  some  insects. 

The  eyes  and  antennae.  —  The  eye  is 

made  up  of  a  large  number  of  simple 

eyes,  so  closely  crowded  together  that 

.1  r  u    «.    •  11    J  J.         J  Fig.  164. — The  Parts 

they  form  what  is  called  a  compound         ^^ ^^  Insect 

eye.     As  a  whole  it  is  shaped  somewhat 

like  half  a  raspberry,  dewberry,  or  blackberry.     The  shape 

of  each  part  of  the  eye  is  something  like  that  of  a  cell  in 

honeycomb. 

The  antennae  bear  the  sense  organs,  which  correspond  to 

our  touch,  smell,  and  probably  hearing  also.     One  reason 

why  the  name  "  feelers  "  is  often  applied  to  these  organs  is 


248  AGRICULTURE 

because  the  insects  really  seem  to  use  them  in  that  way. 
Insects  do  not  have  a  nose  or  ears  as  we  have,  but  some  of 
them  have  the  sense  of  smell  very  wonderfully  developed, 
and  doubtless  they  hear  many  sounds  that  never  reach  our 
ears.  There  are  many  interesting  differences  in  the  form 
of  the  antenna  in  different  insects. 

Wings  and  legs.  —  The  wings  serve  to  carry  their  owners 
over  long  distances.  They  are  very  important  aids  in  en- 
abling insects  to  find  their  food.  A  bee  could  not  get 
enough  to  eat  if  it  had  no  wings  to  carry  it  from  flower  to 
flower.  The  legs  are  arranged  so  as  to  balance  the  body 
in  walking.  Having  si.x  legs,  the  insect  always  has  three 
on  the  ground  while  it  is  moving  the  other  three  forward. 

Exercise.  —  Catch  a  fly  and  see  whether  you  find  all  of  the  parts  of 
the  body  which  have  been  mentioned.  How  many  pairs  of  wings  has 
it  ?  If  you  can  get  a  magnifying  glass  examine  the  eye,  antennx,  mouth, 
and  feet.     Describe  what  you  see. 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  The  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture and  most  of  the  experiment  stations  have  issued  bulletins  on 
injurious  insects.  The  text  and  illustrations  in  these  will  be  useful  to 
you  in  teaching  the  sections  on  insects. 


SECTION  XLV.     HOW   INSECTS   GROW 

One  difference  between  the  structure  of  insects  and 
four-legged  animals  is  that  the  insects  have  their  skele- 
ton or  bones,  as  we  may  call  them,  on  the  outside  of 
their  bodies.  This  is  what  makes  an  insect  hard.  For 
this  reason,  insects  cannot  grow  slowly  and  steadily,  as 
animals  do  that  have  their  skeletons  inside  and  covered 
with  the  soft  and  easily  stretched  muscles  and  skin. 
When  insects  grow  they  do  so  by  sudden  jumps,  as  it 
were.  When  they  have  grown  so  that  they  fill  their  out- 
side skins  very  tightly,  a  new  skeleton  is  formed  inside 
of  the  old;  the  old  skeleton  bursts  and  is  shed  by  the 
insect.  While  the  new  skeleton  is  yet  soft  it  allows  a  con- 
siderable growth  of  the  insect.  This  process  is  repeated 
several  times  in  the  life  of  every  insect  before  it  becomes 
fully  grown.  Having  the  skeleton  on  the  outside  is  a  great 
protection  to  the  insect. 

With  some  insects  these  changes  of  skeleton  are  ac- 
companied only  by  a  change  in  the  size  from  the  newly 
hatched  form  to  the  adult ;  but  with  others  there  are 
great  changes  in  structure  and  appearance  during  the 
last  two  changes  of  skin.  We  must  know  something  of 
these  changes  in  order  to  recognize  the  different  stages 
in  the  life  of  the  same  insect. 

Immature  and  adult  forms  of  insects.  —  Among  the  in- 
sects that   change  but    little  with  their   development  are 

249 


250 


AGRICULTURE 


the  grasshoppers  and  the  true  bugs.  Those  who  study 
insects  use  the  name  "bug"  only  for  a  certain  large  group 
of  insects,  just  as  one  would  speak  of  the  "flies,"  "bees," 
and  "grasshoppers."  Grasshoppers  and  bugs  have  the 
same  general  form  of  body  when  young,  but  acquire 
wings  as  they  become  adult.  Most  of  the  other  common 
insects  undergo  very  remarkable  changes.  It  is  important 
to  know  this,  since  it  may  be  very  difficult  to  destroy  an 
insect  in  one  stage,  but  very  easy  to  do  so  in  another. 
Among  those  that  make  great  changes  in  form  are  all  of 
the  caterpillars,  which  become  butterflies  or  moths  when 
full  grown ;  the  maggots, 
which  become  flies ;  the 
grubs,  which  become  beetles. 
You  will  find  it  exceedingly 
interesting  to  watch  a  cater- 
pillar change  its  skin  or  the 
butterfly  emerge  from  ils 
chrysalis  or  pupal  case. 


Fio.  165.  —  Four  Stages  of  Insect  (Tent  Catekpillab).    Egos  sepakateo 

AND  UACNinED 

Lanra;  cocoons;  moth. 

Stages  in  an  insect's  life.  —  In  the  life  of  most  insects 
there  are  four  well-defined  stages.  The  first  is  the  egg,  the 
second  is  the  lan^a,  the  third  is  the  pupa,  and  the  fourth 


k 


HOW   INSECTS   GROW 


251 


stage  is  the  adult  (Figs.  165,  171).  With  a  few  insects 
there  is  no  visible  egg  stage,  as  the  young  are  born  alive. 
This  is  the  case  with  the  plant-Hce.  The  larval  stage 
is  the  growing  stage  in  every  insect's  life.  If  it  is  not 
well  fed,  the  adult  insect  coming  from  it  will  be  smaller 
in  size  than  usual.  The  pupa,  qx pupal  stage,  occurs  only 
among  insects  in  which  the  larva  is  very  different  from  the 
adult.  It  is  purely  a  trans- 
formation stage,  and  is  one 
of  the  most  wonderful  facts 
in  the  life  of  any  animal. 

Transformation  from  cater- 
pillar to  butterfly.  —  When 
the  butterfly  caterpillar  has 
become  fully  grown,  it  ceases 
to  feed  and  seeks  some  pro- 
tected spot  in  which  to  trans- 
form. For  a  time  it  seems 
to  shrink  or  shrivel  as  though 
about  to  die.  The  most  won- 
derful thing,  perhaps,  is  that 
through  all  the  vital  changes 
that  take  place  within  its 
body  during  this  period  it 
does  not  die.  After  a  few 
days,  the  caterpillar  sheds 
its  larval  skin  and  becomes  the  pretty,  shining  chrysalis, 
or  pupal  case,  of  the  butterfly.  This  is  generally  attached 
to  some  twig  or  stem.  The  surface  is  marked  with 
delicate   lines  which   really  indicate   the  outlines  of   the 


Courtesy  IT.  S.  Bur.  Entomology 

Fig.  166. — Breeding  Cage 
Cage  used  to  confine  insects  when  study- 
ing their  habits. 


252  AGRICULTURE 

sheaths  within  which  the  wings,  legs,  and  antennae  are 
developing.  The  body  of  the  caterpillar  is  made  over  into 
an  entirely  new  set  of  structures  especially  fitted  for  the 
different  life  the  adult  will  lead.  A  wonderful  change 
takes  place  in  both  the  structure  and  the  habits  during  the 
two  stages  of  these  insects'  lives.  A  new  butterfly  is 
formed  out  of  the  body  of  the  old  caterpillar  without  de- 
stroying its  life.  This  is  just  what  happens  with  most 
insects.  With  moths  the  changes  are  very  similar,  only 
they  are  hidden  from  view  by  the  cocoon^  or  silken  case, 
that  the  caterpillar  spins  around  itself  for  protection  dur- 
ing this  critical  time  of  life.  The  change  with  wasps  and 
bees  and  beetles  is  just  as  great  as  with  butterflies  and 
moths. 

Exercise.  —  Bring  some  jxjtato  beetles  to  the  school  and  confine 
them  in  a  cage  such  as  shown  in  Fig.  i66,  with  some  of  the  potato 
vines.  Watch  the  adult  beetles  lay  their  eggs  and  the  young  hatch 
and  grow.  Have  some  earth  in  the  bottom  of  the  cage  for  the  lar\'se 
to  enter  when  they  are  ready  to  transform.  After  a  few  days  dig  out 
some  of  the  pupje  and  see  how  differently  they  are  formed  from  the 
mature  insects  that  were  put  in. 


SECTION   XLVI.     HOW   INSECTS    FEED 

How  insects  feed.  —  Insect  mouth-parts  are  fitted  for 
either  biting  or  for  sucking  food. 

Insects  have  a  number  of  parts  to  their  jaws,  and  these 
are  so  arranged  that  they  work  sidewise  against  each  other. 
The  biting  insects  consume  the  entire  substance  of  the 
leaves,  flowers,  fruit,  or  wood  on  which  they  feed.  This 
is  the  reason  that  it  is  possible  to  kill  such  insects  by 
applying  some  poison  to  the  plants  on  which  they  are 
feeding. 

Some  biting  insects,  however,  feed  in  protected  places 
where  it  is  impossible  to  reach  their  food  with  a  poison 
application.  This  is  the  case  with  the  wood-boring  in- 
sects as  a  rule  and  with  the  cotton-boll  weevil.  Many  of 
the  leaf-feeding  insects,  even,  feed  in  the  buds  or  some 
other  protected  position  that  makes  it  hard  to  control  them. 
It  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  know  both  the  structure  of 
the  mouth  and  something  of  the  general  feeding  habits  of 
each  insect  before  it  can  be  destroyed. 

Different  uses  of  biting  mouth-parts.  —  Among  the  bit- 
ing insects  the  jaws  are  arranged  in  two  principal  positions, 
either  pointing  downward  toward  the  surface  upon  which 
the  insect  rests,  or  forward,  straight  ahead  of  the  insect. 
These  positions  indicate  a  different  use.  When  the  jaws 
point  downward  it  means,  as  a  rule,  that  the  insect  feeds 

253 


254  AGRICULTURE 

upon  the  surface  or  substance  upon  which  it  rests.  This 
is  the  case  with  the  grasshoppers,  caterpillars,  and  most 
other  leaf-feeding  insects.  Where  the  jaws  point  forward, 
it  indicates  that  they  are  used  for  catching  prey  or  for 
boring  into  wood.  Those  insects  which  catch  others  are 
as  a  rule  useful  and  should  not  be  destroyed.  The  tiget 
beetles  and  the  ladybirds  are  two  important  groups  of  such 
useful  insects. 

Sucking  insects.  —  In  the  second  large  group  are  in- 
cluded all  insects  that  take  their  food  ty  sucking.  The 
mosquitoes,  flies,  butterflies,  moths,  and  bugs  are  insects 
of  this  class.  The  food  of  sucking  insects  is  generally 
either  plant  sap  or  animal  blood.  The  butterflies  and 
moths,  however,  use  neither  of  these  ^oods,  but  live  on  the 
nectar,  or  sweet  liquid,  which  is  formed  in  flowers.  Some 
adult  insects  never  feed  at  all.  The  larvae  from  which 
they  are  developed  have  stored  up  so  much  strength  and 
a  surplus  of  food  materials  in  their  body  tissues  that  the 
adult  simply  lives  upon  that  reserve.  In  such  cases  the 
adult  may  have  entirely  lost  the  use  of  its  mouth  and 
the  parts  may  not  be  developed.  Such  insects  are  usually 
short-lived  while  in  the  adult  stage.  Among  the  mosquitoes 
only  the  females  suck  blood.  It  is  possible  for  them  to 
live  on  some  other  food  as  well  as  upon  blood. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  form  of  sucking  mouth  is 
that  of  the  butterflies  and  moths.  All  caterpillars  have 
biting  mouths.  The  tongue  of  the  butterfly  is  often  longer 
than  its  body.  It  would  be  very  much  in  the  way  if  it 
were  not  possible  for  its  owner  to  coil  it  up  like  a  watch- 
spring  and  carry  it  closely  packed  away  under  its  head. 


HOW  INSECTS   FEED  255 

There  is  a  narrow  channel  extending  through  the  entire 
length  of  this  tongue  through  which  the  butterfly  sucks 
the  liquids  that  serve  it  as  food. 

With  most  sucking  insects  the  mouth-parts  are  strong 
enough  to  enable  them  to  pierce  the  tissues  of  plants, 
animals,  or  other  insects,  so  that  their  food  is  obtained 
entirely  from  beneath  the  surface.  This  is  the  reason 
that  it  is  impossible  to  kill  sucking-  insects  by  applying 
poisons  to  the  plants  on  which  they  are  feeding. 

Different  treatments  for  biting  and  for  sucking  insects. 
—  These  types  of  mouth-parts  must  be  well  understood  in 
deciding  just  what  treatment  should  be  given  for  any 
insect  pest.  With  the  biting  leaf -eating  insects,  any  poison 
spread  on  the  surface  of  the  leaves  will  be  taken  into  the 
insect's  stomach  with  its  food  and  cause  its  death.  Paris 
green  is  the  principal  poison  that  is  used  in  this  way.  It 
is  generally  mixed  with  water  and  the  poisoned  solution 
sprayed  all  over  the  trees  or  plants  on  which  leaf-eating 
insects  are  feeding.  Other  poisons  may  be  used  in  the 
same  way.  Such  a  treatment  will  have  no  effect  upon  the 
sap-sucking  insects  that  take  nothing  from  the  surface 
of  the  leaves.  It  has  never  been  found  possible  to  in- 
troduce any  poison  into  the  sap  of  a  plant  so  as  to  destroy 
the  sucking  insects  upon  it.  The  principal  thing  that 
can  be  done  to  destroy  such  insects  is  to  apply  something 
which  will  not  injure  the  plant,  but  which,  coming  into 
contact  with  the  insect's  body,  will  cause  its  death.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  such  treatment  that  can  be  used.  The 
first  kind  includes  many  substances  which  cause  death  by 
covering  with  soap  or  with  oil  the  openings  through  which 


356 


AGRICULTURE 


the  insect  breathes,  which  keep  out  the  air  and  really 
suffocate  it.  These  are  called  contact  insecticides.  Kero- 
sene emulsion  is  one  of  the  most  common  of  such  sub- 
stances. (See  Appendix.)  The  second  class  includes 
those  gases  that  are  either  poisonous  in  themselves  or 
cause  the  death  of  the  insect  by  replacing  the  air  and 
thus  causing  suffocation. 

Exercise. — Watch  caterpillars  feeding  on  foliage,  and  mosquitoes 
and  flies  sucking  blood  or  sweets,  and  describe  what  you  see  them  do. 


FiC.    167.  —  LEAT-EAnNG  CATERPILLARS  AT  WORK 


SECTION   XLVII.     INSECT   ENEMIES   OF   THE 
FARMER 

While  the  injurious  kinds  number  but  a  very  small 
fraction  of  the  great  group  of  insects,  they  are  exceed- 
ingly important  both  to  our  wealth  and  health.  Perhaps 
more  than  a  tenth  of  all  the  crops  raised  each  year  in  our 
entire  country  is  eaten  or  destroyed  by  insects.  This 
damage  amounts  to  a  direct  cost  of  about  ten  dollars  for 
every  man,  woman,  and  child  in  the  United  States. 

The  Hessian  fly. —  Perhaps  the  most  injurious  species 
of  all  is  the  Hessian  fly,  a  minute  insect  which  lives  on 
the  stems  of  wheat  and  other  grains.  In  some  places 
wheat  cannot  be  grown  because  of  the  presence  of  this 
insect  and  the  injury  it  causes.  The  only  remedy  con- 
sists in  burning  over  the  stubble  after  the  crop  has  been 
harvested  and  in  delaying  the  planting  of  the  fall  wheat 
until  after  frosts  have  occurred. 

The  chinch-bug.  — This  is  another  very  important  insect 
that  attacks  grains.  It  is  especially  injurious  to  wheat  and 
corn.  It  is  a  true  bug  and  hardly  more  than  a  fifth  of  an 
inch  long.  Chinch-bugs  often  occur  in  such  numbers  as 
to  cause  the  death  of  the  plants  because  of  the  enormous 
amount  of  sap  they  withdraw.  After  the  crops  of  small- 
grain  are  harvested,  these  bugs  move  on  foot  in  countless 
numbers  to  the  corn-fields.     The  fields  can  be  protected 


258 


AGRICULTURE 


by  running  a  deep  furrow  across  the  path  of  the  bugs  and 
destroying  them  as  they  fall  into  it.  The  fields  should  be 
cleaned  by  burning  all  rubbish  which  can  shelter  the  adult 
bugs  through  the  winter.  With  many  such  pests,  it  is  ad- 
visable to  change  the  crop  on  a  field  each  year,  so  that  the 
pests  may  not  so  readily  find  an  abundance  of  their  food. 


Fig.  168. — Apple  Worm  or  Coduno-Moth 

The  moth  or  miller  lays  the  egg,  from  which  hatches  the 

larva  or  worm. 

The  apple  worm  or  codling -moth.  —  A  widespread  pest 
of  apples  is  the  worm  (Fig.  168)  that  works  into  the  core 
and  makes  the  fruit  "wormy."  This  is  the  larva  of  a 
pretty  moth  that  lays  its  eggs  on  the  leaves  of  the  apple 
soon  after  tJu  blossoming  time.  The  young  larvae  feed  on 
the  leaves  before  they  enter  the  fruit,  into  which  they 
bore  their  way.  This  is  the  reason  why  it  is  possible  to 
kill  nearly  all  of  the  young  worms  by  applying  a  poisonous 


INSECT   ENEMIES   OF   THE   FARMER  259 

spray,  which  usually  contains  Paris  green,  at  about  the  time 
that  the  petals  drop  from  the  blossoms,  A  second  spraying 
in  from  ten  days  to  three  weeks  after  the  first  is  an  almost 
complete  remedy  for  this  pest.  The  expense  is  very  slight 
in  comparison  with  the  value  of  the  crop  saved. 

The  peach  borer.  —  One  of  the  most  important  peach 
insects  is  the  peach  borer,  which  works,  not  upon  the  fruit, 
but  in  the  trees.  If  constant  care  be  not  taken,  these 
borers  may  destroy  a  valuable  orchard  in  a  few  years. 
The  adult  is  a  beautiful  little  moth,  resembling  some  of 
the  wasps  in  its  appearance.  The  eggs  are  laid  by  the 
parent  moths  during  the  summer  upon  the  bark  near 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  After  hatching,  the  larva 
begins  to  bore  into  the  bark,  working  downward  a  little 
below  the  surface.  It  lives  thereafter  in  the  sap-carrying 
layers  just  under  the  bark.  Its  presence  is  marked  by  an 
abundant  formation  of  gum.  The  usual  and  best  remedy 
is  to  dig  around  the  base  of  each  tree  early  in  the  fall  or 
winter,  and  if  any  signs  of  gum  are  found,  to  dig  out  and 
destroy  the  larvae  or  worms.  This  must  be  done  carefully 
so  as  not  to  miss  any  of  the  worms  or  injure  the  trees 
more  by  digging  than  the  worms  would  do  if  left  alone. 

The  San  Jose  scale.  —  This  is  one  of  the  most  important 
enemies  of  all  fruit  trees  that  shed  their  leaves.  It  is  called 
the  San  Jos6  (H5'sa)  scale  because  it  was  first  found  in  the 
United  States  near  a  place  in  California  by  that  name. 
The  scale  insects  are  true  bugs  and  suck  the  sap  from  the 
trees.  The  adult  female  scales  are  hardly  as  large  as  pin 
heads,  but  they  may  occur  so  abundantly  as  to  cover  the 
bark  completely,  and  to  cause  the  death  of  large  trees  in  a 


26o 


AGRICULTURE 


few  years  (Fig.  169).     The  best  treatment  is  to  spray  the 
trees  thoroughly  just  before  the  leaves  start  in  the  spring 
with  a  solution  made  by  boiling  lime  and  sul- 
fur together.     This   is   known    as  the  /itne- 
sulfur  wash.    (See  Appendix.) 

The  potato  beetle.  —  This  insect  occurs  so 
commonly  that  it  is  probably  well  known  to 
all  of  you.  The  adult  beetle  is  marked  with 
ten  light  and  dark  stripes.  The  young  are 
thick-bodied,  soft,  red  grubs.  They  eat  the 
vines  of  the  Irish  potato  and  the  mature 
beetles  do  likewise.  The  beetle  lives  over 
winter  and  lays  its  eggs  upon  the  potato 
plants  early  in  the  season.  The  eggs  hatch 
^  ___  into  small  reddish  grubs  and  in  a  few  weeks 
r  wH  ^^  vines  may  be  eaten  bare.  The  remedy 
V •  •  ^^"^  ^^'^  P^^'  *^  Paris  green,  sprayed  or  dusted 
on  the  leaves.  Lime  should  generally  be 
used  with  Paris  green  to  prevent  its  injuring 
the  leaves. 

The  plum  curculio. — This  is  another  beetle 
that  does  great  damage  to  the  plum  and 
peach  crops.  The  adult  is  one  of  the  snout 
beetles,  or  weevils.  After  the  fruit  has  set, 
Fio  160  —San  ^^  mother  weevil  lays  her  eggs  in  it  and 
Jos^  Scales,  then  eats  a  crescent-shaped  cut  half  around 
ENLARGED  ^^^y^  ^^^  j^^  ordcr  that  the  growth  of  the 
fruit  may  not  crush  the  egg  before  it  hatches.  This  al- 
ways marks  the  location  of  the  egg.  The  larva  eats  its 
way  into  the  fruit  and   around   the   stone.     When   fully 


»«< 


INSECT   ENEMIES   OF   THE   FARMER 


261 


grown,  it  leaves  the  fruit  and  goes  into  the  ground  to 
transform.  The  adult  weevil  comes  out  early  in  the  spring 
and  feeds  for  a  time  on  the  buds  before  the  fruit  is  set. 
During  this  period  it  may  be  destroyed  by  spraying  the 
opening  buds  with  poison.  If  sprayed  just  after  bios-, 
soming,  many  weevils  will  be  killed  before  they  injure 
the  fruit. 

Another  method  of  destroying  the  weevils  depends 
upon  their  habit  of  dropping  to  the  ground  for  protection 
if  anything  dis- 
turbs the  tree. 
A  cloth-covered 
frame  is  placed 
under  the  tree, 
which  is  then 
jarred  vigor- 
ously, causing 
most  of  the  wee- 
vils  to  drop 
into  the  cloth, 
from  which  they 
may  easily  be 
collected  and 
destroyed  (Fig. 
170). 

The  cotton-boll  worm  (Fig.  171).  —  These  worms  pre- 
fer corn  ears  to  cotton  bolls.  That  is,  if  corn  that  has 
not  become  hard  or  mature  is  near,  the  boll  worm  moths 
will  place  nearly  all  of  their  eggs  on  the  corn.  By  plant- 
ing a  few   rows  of  corn  at  intervals  of   two  weeks   it   is 


*»^ 

1  -A^'A. 

W^ 

M 

M 

1^^^ 

m0 

■ 

im 

I^F      M 

^^^>- 

■ 

Photograph  by  K.  S.  Mackintcsh 

Fig.  170.  —  Jarring  Peach  Trees  to  catch 
curculios  on  the  screen  below 


263 


AGRICULTURE 


possible  to  have  the  corn  silking  and  in  condition  to  attract 
the  moths  when  they  are  most  abundant  in  July  and 
August  The  cotton  is  left  almost  uninjured.  This  prac- 
tice is  in  addition  to  that  of  plowing  the  ground  early  in 

the  winter  to 
break  up  the  cells 
in  which  the 
pupae  are  passing 
the  winter. 

The  cotton  worm. 
—  A  number  of 
years  ago  this  was 
the  most  serious 
enemy  of  cotton, 
but  more  recently 
it  has  been  less 
injurious.  The 
caterpillars  be- 
come abundant 
rather  late  in  the 
season  and  may 
strip  all  of  the 
foliage  from  the 
plants.  They  may  quite  easily  be  reduced  in  numbers 
by  dusting  the  cotton  plants  with  Paris  green  mixed  with 
flour.  Strange  as  it  may  seem,  this  worm  has  recently 
come  to  be  considered  as  beneficial  to  those  sections  of 
the  cotton  belt  where  the  boll  weevil  occurs.  It  deprives 
the  boll  weevil  of  food  by  practically  killing  the  cotton 
plant. 


Cuurtoijr  C.  8.  Bur.  Kntomolocj 

Fig.  t7i.  — Fou|Staces  or  the  Cotton- 
boll  Worm,  all  enlarged 


INSECT   ENEMIES   OF   THE  FARMER  263 

Exercise.  —  Ask  the  owner's  permission  to  examine  the  roots  of 
peach  trees  for  borers.  In  your  notebooic  write  a  description  of  what 
you  find.  If  specimens  of  the  other  insects  mentioned  in  this  section 
can  be  found,  place  them  in  bottles  and  present  them  to  the  teacher  for 
examination  by  the  class. 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  — Bulletins  on  each  of  these  separate  in- 
sects have  been  issued  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
and  by  many  of  the  experiment  stations.  You  may  render  a  great 
service  in  preventing  the  destruction  of  fruit  trees  by  obtaining  one  or 
more  of  these  bulletins  and,  with  its  help,  collecting  twigs  that  seem  to 
be  attacked  by  scale  insects.  Specimens  forwarded  to  the  entomologist 
at  your  state  experiment  station  will  generally  be  identified  without 
charge  and  detailed  information  will  be  furnished  for  the  treatment  of 
the  insect  found. 


SECTION  XLVIII.     THE   MEXICAN   COTTON- 
BOLL  WEEVIL 

In  the  Southern  states  where  cotton  is  grown,  the  most 
important  insect  for  you  to  know  about  is  the  Mexican  cot- 
ton-boll wecinl.  This 
insect  (Fig. i 72) 
feeds  only  upon  cot- 
ton, but  its  injury  to 
this  is  very  serious. 

It  came  into  the 
United  States  from 
Mexico  about  1892, 
and  has  since  spread 
throughout  most  of 
the  cotton-growing 
portions  of  Texas  and 
Louisiana,  and  over 
the  southern  parts  of 
Oklahoma  and  Ar- 
kansas. During  the 
fall  of  1907  it  crossed 

Fig.  j 


the  Mississippi  River 
into  a  few  of  the 
southwestern  coun- 
ties of  Mississippi.  It  is  very  certain  to  continue  its  spread 
throughout  the  other  cotton-growing  states.     The  injury 


Tut.    CoiTON-BOLL   Wr.r.Vi., 

(i)  adult;  (3)  egg,  much  enlarged;  (3)  larva; 
(4)  pupa;  (5)  adult,  bark  view;  (6)  side 
view,  all  enlarged. 


a64 


THE  MEXICAN   COTTON-BOLL  WEEVIL  265 

that  it  is  doing  now  can  scarcely  be  estimated  at  less  than 
twenty-five  million  dollars  a  year. 

The  egg.  —  The  adult  weevils  that  have  lived  through 


Courtesy  U.  S.  Bur,  Kotoniology 

Fig.  i73.^Larva  of  Boll  Weevil  in  a  Square  of  Cotton 

the  winter  are  ready  to  attack  cotton  as  soon  as  the  first 
squares   are  formed   in   the   spring.     The  eggs  are  very 


266  AGRICULTURE 

small,  and  are  laid  in  a  hole  which  the  female  eats  in  the 
square  or  boll.  After  placing  the  egg  at  the  bottom  of 
the  hole,  the  opening  to  it  is  sealed  air-tight  by  the  mother 
weevil  so  that  the  egg  will  not  dry  up  and  fail  to  hatch. 
Each  female  may  lay  more  than  a  hundred  and  some  even 


Ooortsqr  U.  S.  Bar.  Katonwtoci' 

Fig.  174.  —  Lakva  or  Boll  Weevil  vt  the  Boll 

more  than  two  hundred  eggs.     Only  a  few  days  are  re- 
quired for  these  to  hatch. 

The  larva.  —  Upon  hatching,  the  little  larva,  or  grub, 
finds  itself  surrounded  by  the  tender  parts  of  the  bud  or 
boll  and  then  proceeds  to  feed  and  grow.    When  the  larva 


THE   MEXICAN   COTTON-BOLL  WEEVIL  267 

has  become  about  half  grown,  the  injury  to  the  square  is 
usually  so  severe  that  the  little  leaf-like  parts  surrounding 
the  bud  spread  outward  and  the  square  turns  yellow.  In 
about  ten  days  from  the  time  the  egg  is  laid  the  square 
usually  falls  to  the  ground,  where  the  larva  continues  to 


Courtesy  fj,  s.  iJur.  ±,mumoiuisy 

Fig.  175.  —  Square  from  which  an  Adult  Boll  Weevil  has  emerged 

feed  within  it  until  fully  grown  (Fig.  173).  This  requires 
only  about  ten  to  fifteen  days.  Dry,  hot  weather  may  kill 
the  insects  within  the  fallen  squares,  especially  if  the  rows 
of  cotton  be  far  enough  apart  to  let  in  the  sunshine. 

The  pupa.  —  Within  the  shelter  of  the  walls  of  the  fallen 


268  AGRICULTURE 

bud  or  square,  or  within  the  boll  (which  is  more  likely  to 
remain  hanging  upon  the  plant),  the  larva  changes  to  a 
pupa.  After  only  about  three  days  more  it  becomes  a  full- 
grown  weevil.  The  weevil  then  cuts  a  hole  in  the  sur- 
rounding walls  that  is  just  the  size  of  its  body,  and 
through  this  makes  its  escape  to  the  outside  world  (Fig. 
175).  All  of  its  life  from  the  time  the  egg  is  laid  until 
the  mature  weevil  comes  forth  is  passed  in  the  interior 
of  the  square  or  boll.  This  fact  makes  it  impossible 
to  apply  any  poisons  so  as  to  destroy  the  insect  in  its 
early  stages. 

The  adult.  —  The  mature  weevil  (Fig.  172)  is  a  gray  or 
reddish  brown  insect  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long,  not 
including  the  long  snout.  The  mouth-parts  are  very  small 
and  are  at  the  extreme  tip  of  the  long  snout.  This  en- 
ables the  weevil  to  bore  deep  into  the  squares  and  bolls. 
Squares,  blooms,  and  bolls  are  destroyed  by  the  attacks  of 
the  mature  weevils,  by  the  injury  caused  by  the  growing 
grub,  and  by  the  decay  which  starts  in  such  wounds. 
The  adults,  or  weevils,  may  live  for  a  number  of  months. 
The  development  is  so  rapid  that  fully  five  generations 
may  reach  maturity  in  a  season.  Hence  the  insects  are 
most  abundant  in  the  late  summer  and  in  the  fall.  The 
only  check  to  the  increase  of  weevils  is  the  absence  of 
squares,  blooms,  and  bolls.  When  the  weevils  are  very 
numerous,  they  destroy  the  squares  so  completely  that  no 
blooms  are  formed. 

Spread.  —  The  weevils  may  be  spread  in  a  number  of 
ways,  especially  by  seed  carried  from  the  gins  on  the  border 
of  the  region  where  the  weevil  is  present.     To  prevent 


THE   MEXICAN   COTTON-BOLL  WEEVIL  269 

this,  strict  rules  have  been  made  against  the  shipment  of 
cotton  seed  or  other  materials  that  might  carry  the  weevils. 

The  boll  weevil  spreads  chiefly  by  flying.  This  flight 
and  rapid  spread  occur  during  the  fall  months.  In  this 
way,  the  weevil  spreads  into  about  fifty  miles  of  new  terri- 
tory each  season.  It  is  expected  to  spread  over  the  entire 
cotton  belt  within  a  comparatively  few  years. 

How  it  passes  the  winter.  —  The  weevils  which  reach 
maturity  late  in  the  fall  are  the  ones  that  are  most  likely  to 
live  through  the  winter.  Fortunately,  only  from  one  to  ten 
weevils  live  through  the  winter  out  of  every  hundred  that 
attempt  to  do  so.  The  weevils  that  mature  in  the  late  fall 
find  shelter  in  the  old  cotton  bolls  on  the  stalk,  or  under 
any  rubbish  in  or  around  the  fields.  The  few  that  survive 
the  winter  leave  their  places  of  shelter  gradually  during 
a  period  of  from  ten  to  fourteen  weeks,  as  a  rule  between 
the  last  of  March  and  the  first  of  July.  This  gradual 
coming  out  from  winter  quarters  makes  it  very  difficult  to 
do  much  to  control  the  weevil  early  in  the  spring. 

Treatment  for  the  weevil.  —  This  has  proved  to  be  a 
very  difficult  insect  to  control.  No  poisons  have  proved 
of  much  value  in  fighting  it.  It  has  been  found  that  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun  will  destroy  large  numbers  of  the 
insects  while  in  the  immature  stages  in  the  fallen  squares, 
when  they  are  exposed  to  it.  Some  of  our  native  ants, 
which  occur  all  through  the  cotton-growing  area,  are  very 
valuable  helps,  because  they  destroy  large  numbers  of  the 
pest  in  its  immature  stages.  A  number  of  other  insects 
attack  the  immature  insects  in  the  squares  and  bolls  and 
destroy  them.    More  than  forty  species  of  birds  are  known 


270  AGRICULTURE 

to  destroy  boll  weevils.  The  most  important  of  these  are 
the  swallows  and  orioles  in  summer  and  blackbirds  and 
meadow  larks  in  winter. 

The  best  way  to  fight  the  boll  weevil  is  to  make  certain 
improvements  in  farm  practice.  The  most  important  step 
is  to  hasten  the  cotton  plant  to  early  maturity,  so  that  the 
bolls  formed  early  in  the  summer  may  become  well  grown 
by  the  time  the  weevils  become  very  numerous, — the 
middle  of  July  or  first  of  August.  The  boll  weevil  does 
not  do  much  damage  to  well-grown  bolls  while  there  is 
an  abundance  of  squares  in  which  eggs  have  not  already 
been  laid. 

The  maturity  of  cotton  may  be  hastened  — 
(i)  By  planting  varieties  or  selections  that  mature  early, 
or  that  form  bolls  early  in  the  summer. 

(2)  By  early  planting  and  frequent  and  thorough  culti- 
vation. 

(3)  By  the  liberal  use  of  fertilizers.  Generally  acid 
phosphate  hastens  the  maturing  of  cotton. 

The  farmer  who  adopts  the  intensive  system  of  cotton 
culture  and  who  produces  two  thirds  of  a  bale  or  more  of 
cotton  to  the  acre  before  the  boll  weevil  reaches  him  will 
probably  be  able  to  grow  cotton  profitably  after  this 
insect  comes.  But  the  farmer,  who  before  the  coming 
of  the  boll  weevil  gets  only  a  third  of  a  bale  or  less 
from  an  acre,  will  scarcely  be  able  to  continue  to  grow 
cotton  in  the  old  way  after  the  pest  reaches  him. 

The  second  step  in  fighting  the  boll  weevil  consists  in 
destroying  the  green  parts  of  the  plants  or  in  plowing  un- 
der the  cotton  stalks  as  early  as  possible  in  the  fall.     This 


THE   MEXICAN   COTTON-BOLL  WEEVIL  2/1 

Is  done  in  order  to  deprive  the  weevils  of  their  only  food- 
supply,  to  stop  their  increase,  and  to  reduce  the  number  of 
hiding  places  in  which  they  may  spend  the  winter.  The 
best  preparation  for  farmers  to  make  for  the  coming  of 
the  boll  weevil  is  (i)  to  become  accustomed  to  growing  a 
greater  variety  of  crops  and  more  live-stock,  and  (2)  to 
practice  intensive  cultivation  of  cotton,  that  is,  to  cultivate 
fewer  acres  of  cotton  so  thoroughly  as  to  make  them  pro- 
duce as  many  bales  as  were  grown  on  the  larger  area. 
The  only  safety  lies  in  diversified  farming  and  intensive 
cotton  culture. 

Exercise.  —  Let  those  who  live  outside  of  the  region  already  in- 
vaded by  the  boll  weevil  try  to  estimate  by  the  aid  of  the  maps  in  some 
geography,  how  many  years  will  probably  pass  before  the  boll  weevil 
will  reach  their  county,  if  it  moves  forward  about  fifty  miles  each  year, 
assuming  that  it  starts  eastward  from  the  Mississippi  River  in  1908. 
Do  you  think  that  farmers  living  near  you  realize  that  the  boll  weevil  is 
certainly  coming?  Are  any  of  them  making  preparations  for  its  com- 
ing by  raising  a  variety  of  farm  products,  —  live-stock,  truck  crops,  fruit, 
etc.,  —  and  by  raising  cotton  under  the  intensive  system  ?  Ask  your 
parents  what  additional  crops  or  live-stock,  or  live-stock  products,  could 
be  produced  to  advantage  in  your  own  neighborhood. 


SECTION  XLIX.     INSFXTS  AND  HEALTH 

During  the  past  few  years  much  has  been  learned  about 
the  part  that  insects  play  in  the  spread  of  various  diseases. 

Flies  carry  disease.  —  It  has  been  found  that  flies  are 
frequently  very  important  agents  in  the  spreading  of 
typhoid  fever.  They  do  this  by  carrying  to  human  food 
on  their  feet  or  mouth-parts  the  germs  that  cause  the  dis- 
ease. These  germs  are  brought  from  the  infected  matter 
which  flies  visit.  This  has  been  proved  by  allowing  a  fly 
which  had  been  on  diseased  matter  to  walk  across  the 
surface  of  a  specially  prepared  material  in  which  the  germs 
of  the  disease  could  live.  In  a  few  days  it  was  found  that 
the  typhoid  germs  were  multiplying  at  every  spot  the  fly 
had  touched.  The  danger  of  the  spread  of  such  a  disease 
by  flies  can  be  decreased  as  follows:  (i)  the  frequent 
use  of  lime  where  needed  about  the  premises,  so  as  to  re- 
duce the  number  of  flies  and  thus  protect  food ;  (2)  fre- 
quently cleaning  stables  and  lots  to  keep  flies  from  breeding 
there;  and  (3)  thorough  screening  of  houses. 

Mosquitoes  and  yellow  fever.  —  It  has  been  proved  very 
positively  that  a  certain  kind  of  mosquito  is  the  agent 
in  carrying  this  disease  from  one  person  to  another.  It 
is  probable  that  it  is  spread  in  no  other  way.  This  mos- 
quito is  the  common  black-and-white-banded  day  mosquito 
of  the  Southern  states.  Before  the  connection  of  the 
mosquito  with  the  spread  of  this  disease  became  known, 

273 


INSECTS   AND   HEALTH  273 

frightful  outbreaks  of  the  fever  sometimes  occurred  in  the 
South.  In  Havana,  Cuba,  it  was  always  present.  Even 
there  the  disease  has  been  stamped  out  by  destroying 
the  mosquitoes  (Fig.  178). 

As  these  mosquitoes  breed  very  extensively  in  the  cis- 
terns, rain  barrels,  or  other  water-holding  vessels,  the  rem- 
edy evidently  consists  in  removing  every  unnecessary  water 
vessel  and  in  screening  those  which  must  remain  with  wire 
screening  or  cheese  cloth  so  tightly  that  the  mosquitoes  can- 
not get  to  the  water  to  breed. 

Mosquitoes  and  malaria.  —  More  important  than  either 
of  the  cases  which  have  been  mentioned  is  the  relation  of 
mosquitoes  to  the  spreading  of  malaria.  That  they  do  this 
has  been  most  positively  proved,  and  it  is  certain  that  mala- 
ria is  never  spread  in  any  other  way.  The  females  alone 
do  all  of  this  deadly  work,  as  the  males  never  suck  blood. 

How  malaria  is  spread.  —  Malaria  is  caused  by  a  very 
minute  animal  that  lives  as  a  parasite  in  the  red  blood  cells 
of  man.  When  a  mosquito  sucks  blood  from  a  person 
who  has  the  disease,  the  parasites  are  taken  with  the  blood. 
In  the  body  of  the  mosquito  certain  of  them  undergo  a 
development  which  they  never  do  in  man.  After  about 
ten  or  twelve  days  in  the  mosquito  these  parasites  pass 
through  the  stomach  walls  and  gather  in  its  throat.  At 
any  time  after  this  occurs,  when  this  mosquito  bites  a  well 
person,  she  is  likely  to  force  some  of  the  parasites  into  the 
person's  body  along  with  the  saliva  which  she  injects  into 
the  wound.  In  this  way,  after  a  few  days  or  weeks,  a  new 
case  of  malaria  develops.  This  is  considered  as  one  of 
the  most  important  recent  discoveries  in  medicine. 


274 


AGRICULTURE 


Knowing  how  the  disease  is  spread,  it  becomes  possible 
to  prevent  it  entirely.  The  malarial  regions  are  simply 
those  where  the  malarial  mosquitoes  are  abundant  It 
has  been  positively  proved  that  it  is  possible  for  people 
to  live  even  in  the  worst  of  such  regions  and  yet  to  keep 
entirely  well  by  guarding  against  being  bitten  by  the  mos- 
quitoes. Their  bites  can  be  escaped,  for  the  malarial 
mosquitoes  are  active  only  between  sunset  and  sunrise. 

The  thorough  screening  of  the 
houses  is  the  most  certain  means 
of  preventing  the  spread  of  the 
disease.  In  addition  the  draining 
or  filling  of  the  standing  water 
pools  in  which  the  mosquitoes 
breed  should  be  done.  Small  fish 
live  on  mosquito  wigglers  and, 
hence,  fish  should  be  kept  in 
ponds  that  cannot  be  drained  or 
filled. 

How  to  know  the  malarial  mos- 
quitoes.— Whether  we  desire  to  de- 
stroy or  to  avoid  these  mosquitoes, 
we  should  know  how  to  tell  them  from  harmless  kinds  and 
also  be  able  to  tell  the  larvae  or  wigglers,  in  their  breeding 
places.  All  of  the  mosquitoes  that  are  concerned  in 
spreading  this  disease  belong  to  a  single  group  and  are 
closely  related.  The  adults  are  rather  long-legged  as 
compared  with  other  kinds ;  when  at  rest,  they  stand 
with  their  bodies  pointing  head  first  to  the  surface 
to  which  they  are  clinging  (Fig.  176).     Other  mosquitoes 


Flo.  176 — Malakial  Mos- 
quito   below;    CotfifOK 

MoSQtniO   ABOVE 


INSECTS   AND   HEALTH 


275 


rest  with  the  body  parallel  to  the  surface  upon  which 
they  touch. 

Among  the  larvae,  or  wigglers,  these  positions  are  quite 
reversed,  as  the  malarial  kinds  are  usually  found  with  their 
bodies  just  under  the  surface  of  the  water  and  parallel  to  it, 
while  the  other  kinds  hang,  head 
downward,  nearly  at  right  angles 
to  the  surface  (Fig.  177).  Green 
scum   is    usually    present   where 
malarial  mosquitoes  abound. 

The  remedies.  —  These  mos- 
quitoes do  not  fly  far  from  the 
places  where  they  breed.  It  is 
only  necessary  to  thoroughly 
screen  the  houses,  to  avoid  being 
bitten  by  the  mosquitoes,  and  to  Fig.  177— Wigglerof  Mala- 
fill  or  drain  the  places  where  they  ^^^^  Mosquito  above 

breed  to  stop  completely  the  spread  of  this  disease.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  empty  the  water  at  least  once  a  week 
from  drinking  troughs,  barrels,  etc.,  where  the  mosquitoes 
might  breed.  Tin  cans,  or  similar  water  holders,  should 
be  buried  or  placed  so  that  they  cannot  hold  water.  Cis- 
terns and  wells  should  be  covered  and  everything  possible 
done  to  prevent  the  multiplication  of  mosquitoes  of  any 
kind.  The  reward  for  such  work  will  be  a  largely  increased 
measure  of  comfort  and  health. 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  Bulletins  on  mosquitoes  have  been  pub- 
lished especially  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and 
the  state  experiment  stations  at  the  following  post  offices :  Berkeley, 
Cal. ;  Lexington,  Ky. ;  College  Park,  Md. ;  Agricultural  College  Post 
Office,  Miss.,  and  New  Brunswick,  N.  J. 


276 


AGRICULTURE 


Exercise.  —  Catch  some  of  the  mosquito  wigglera  which  you  may 
find  in  standing  water  and  keep  them  in  a  glass  partly  filled  with  water, 
under  a  lantern  globe  covered  with  cheese  cloth.  Watch  the  habits  of 
the  larv*  and  pupae.  If  you  can  find  any  of  the  boat-shaped  egg 
masses  of  the  common  house  mosquito  or  the  single  eggs  of  the  malarial 
mosquito,  put  them  into  a  tumbler  of  water  by  themselves  and  watch 
them  until  they  become  full-grown  mosquitoes. 


Fig.  178.  —  Mosquito  that  cakries  the  Yellow  Fevek  Geuc 


SECTION    L.     THE   HONEYBEE 


The  keeping  of  bees  for  the  production  of  honey  is  an 
important  industry  in  many  sections  of  the  country  and  is 
practiced  to  some  extent  nearly  everywhere.  The  occur- 
rence of  nectar  in  flowers  and  the  visits 
of  the  bees  and  other  insects  to  the  flow- 
ers to  secure  it  are  well-known  facts.  Many 
wild  bees  store  honey,  but  the  few  kinds 
kept  and  cared  for  by  man  have  developed  pic  179.— worker 
a  wonderful  ability  to  do  this.     Bees  are  ^^^ 

provided  with  powerful  stings  which 
they  are  likely  to  use  if  anything 
threatens  their  home  and  honey  sup- 
plies. But  bees  are  not  dangerous  to 
one  who  knows  how  to  handle  them 
Fig.  180.  —  Drone  Bee   properly. 

The  members  of  a  colony.  —  The  workers  number  from 
25,000  to  35,000  in  a  hive.  These  do  all 
of  the  work  of  collecting  and  storing  the 
honey  and  all  of  the  housekeeping  in  the 
hive.  Besides  the  workers  there  are  a  few 
male  bees  or  drones,  and  usually  only  one 
queen  (Figs.  179,  180,  181).  If  more  than  fig.  181. 
one  queen  is  present,  there  will  be  warfare 
between  the  two  until  one  is  killed ;  or  if  the  colony  is 
strong  and    the    honey    supply   abundant,    part    of    the 

277 


•  Queen 


Bee 


278  AGRICULTURE 

workers  may  leave  the  old  hive  with  the  new  queen  and 
found  another  colony.     This  is  called  swarming. 

The  work  of  the  queen.  —  The  queen  bee  is  very  care- 
fully cared  for  by  the  workers,  for  upon  her  depends  the 
very  life  of  the  colony.  They  feed  her  and  do  everything 
else  possible  for  her  comfort  and  safety.  The  reason  for 
all  of  this  an.xiety  about  the  queen  is  that  she  alone  lays 
all  of  the  many  thousands  of  eggs  for  the  colony.  Her 
strength  is  saved  for  that  work. 

The  bee  nursery.  —  The  worker  bees  build  the  honey- 
comb in  which  the  honey  is  stored  and  in  which  the  young 
bees  are  reared.  Separate  combs  are  used  for  these  two 
purposes.  While  the  honey  is  stored  for  food,  the  young 
bees  are  not  fed  upon  it  directly.  They  are  not  brought 
up  in  the  cells  with  the  honey.  This  is  how  it  is  possible 
to  have  the  fine  solid  combs  of  pure  honey. 

When  a  comb  is  prepared  for  the  rearing  of  the  young, 
the  queen  is  taken  to  it  by  the  workers.  She  places  one 
egg  in  the  bottom,  or  rather  in  the  inner  end,  of  each  cell. 
With  that  her  work  is  done.  But  during  the  summer 
time,  she  may  have  to  lay  several  hundreds  or  even  thou- 
sands of  eggs  every  day.  Whether  the  young  bee  is  to 
become  a  worker,  a  drone,  or  a  queen  depends  largely 
upon  the  kind  of  cell  in  which  the  egg  is  placed  and  also 
upon  the  kind  of  food  that  the  young  bee  is  fed.  The 
workers  are  developed  in  the  ordinary  sized,  horizontal 
cells.  The  drone  cells  are  much  larger,  but  also  horizontal, 
and  the  eggs  deposited  in  these  are  supposed  to  be  in- 
fertile. The  workers  can  produce  a  queen  when  they 
desire  by  forming  a  larger  vertical  cell,  placing  in  it  an 


THE   HONEYBEE  279 

ordinary  worker  egg,  and  then  feeding  the  young  larva 
upon  a  special  kind  of  food  which  is  called  royal  jelly. 

The  bee  larvae  are  little  legless  creatures  and  are  fed 
and  cared  for  entirely  by  the  workers.  Their  food  is  a 
mixture  of  honey  with  pollen.  After  they  become  adult 
they  do  not  leave  the  hive  for  some  days,  but  serve  as 
nurses  for  the  larvae  still  in  the  cells.  In  about  two  weeks 
they  also  begin  the  collection  of  honey. 

How  honey  is  made.  —  When  collecting  honey,  a  bee 
usually  visits  only  one  kind  of  flower  on  a  trip.  The 
sweet  nectar  is  carried  in  a  special  stomach  from  which  the 
bee  is  able  to  expel  it  again  for  storage  in  the  honeycomb. 
Upon  its  legs  and  body  the  bee  carries  pollen  from  the 
flowers  it  has  visited.  Bees  really  gather  nectar,  not 
honey.  After  the  nectar  has  been  stored  in  the  comb, 
the  bees  fan  it  with  their  wings  and  dry  out  much  of  the 
water,  and  in  due  time  it  ripens  into  real  honey. 

There  are  so  many  things  to  be  known  in  order  to  man- 
age bees  successfully  that  it  has  become  a  special  business 
to  which  many  people  give  all  of  their  time.  Upon  the 
amount  of  honey  produced  each  year  depends  the  value  of 
a  colony  of  bees.  From  well-managed  hives  of  selected 
bees  and  during  seasons  favorable  for  the  growth  of  the 
honey-producing  plants  as  much  as  several  hundred 
pounds  of  honey  may  be  stored  by  a  single  hive. 

Length  of  life  of  bees.  —  The  life  of  a  colony  of  bees 
may  be  continued  indefinitely,  but  the  life  of  the  individ- 
ual workers  is  short  in  the  summer  time  when  they  are 
flying  a  great  deal.  They  wear  their  wings  out  and  thus 
really  work  themselves  to  death,  in  a  few  weeks.   The  drones 


28o  AGRICULTURE 

never  live  over  winter  and  are  usually  killed  by  the  workers 
during  the  fall.  But  the  queen  may  live  for  several  years. 
When  a  queen  becomes  old  or  exhausted,  a  new  one  takes 
her  place  and  the  life  of  the  colony  goes  on  steadily. 

Producing  select  hives  of  bees.  —  The  best  kinds  of  bees 
have  been  developed  in  Italy.  Among  these  are  the  Ital- 
ian and  the  Carniolan  bees.  In  some  respects  the  latter 
are  the  best  bees  known.  By  placing  a  single  fertile 
queen  of  one  of  these  choice  kinds  in  a  hive  of  common 
bees,  it  will  happen  that  in  a  few  weeks  or  months  all  of  the 
bees  in  the  hive  will  be  of  her  kind  because  she  lays  all 
of  the  eggs.  This  is  the  way  colonies  of  choice  bees  are 
produced.  Such  queens  are  raised  for  sale  by  some  bee- 
keepers and  can  be  sent  long  distances  by  mail. 

Honey-producing  plants.  —  For  the  best  results  with  bees 
it  is  important  that  there  be  an  abundance  of  good  honey- 
producing  plants  in  the  vicinity  of  the  hives.  Among  the 
best  plants  for  this  are  some  of  the  clovers,  alfalfa,  vetches, 
and  many  of  the  common  fruit  trees.  Sweet  clover,  which 
grows  wild  and  which  is  also  cultivated  on  lime  soils  in  the 
Southern  states,  is  an  excellent  bee  plant.  Many  of  the 
wild  flowers  and  weeds  are  sources  of  abundant  honey- 
supply.  Cotton,  cowpeas,  and  buckwheat  are  good.  The 
magnolia,  palmetto,  tulip  or  yellow  poplar,  and  sourwood 
are  valuable  sources  of  supply.  Before  undertaking  bee- 
keeping on  a  large  scale  the  surrounding  plant  life  should 
be  carefully  studied.  Desirable  honey-producing  crops  may 
be  grown  to  help  out  the  natural  sources  of  supply. 


SECTION  LI.     IMPROVEMENT  OF  LIVE-STOCK 

The  principal  animals  that  add  to  farmers'  profits  are 
horses,  mules,  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine.  All  of  these  ani- 
mals have  been  greatly  changed  by  man  in  order  that 
they  may  better  serve  his  uses.  The  active,  slender,  long- 
legged  wild  hog  has  been  changed  into  the  round-bodied, 
short-legged  Berkshire  or  Poland-China.  The  angular, 
long-horned  wild  cattle  of  earlier  days  have  been  trans- 
formed into  immense  masses  of  flesh. 

The  changes  that  have  occurred  in  domestic  animals 
have  been  brought  about  chiefly  by  selection  of  the  ones 
best  suited  to  their  owner's  main  purpose.  Improvement 
in  the  kind  and  amount  of  food  has  also  helped  to  make 
these  changes. 

Improving  common  or  scrub  live-stock.  —  A  breed  is  a 
large  group  of  animals  that  resemble  each  other  and 
whose  offspring  inherit  the  same  qualities.  A  pure-bred 
animal  is  one  both  of  whose  parents  belong  to  the 
same  breed.  Scrubs  or  natives  are  animals  having  no 
ancestors  that  belonged  to  any  distinct  breed.  Grades 
are  animals  descended  from  both  pure-bred  and  scrub 
ancestors. 

Fortunately  for  the  farmer,  the  pure-bred  parent  has 
more  influence  than  the  scrub  parent  in  determining  the 
form,  color,  and  useful  qualities  of  the  grade  offspring. 

281 


28a  AGRICULTURE 

Hence,  the  best  way  to  improve  cattle  or  other  live-atock 
cheaply  is  to  purchase  pure-bred  sires,  or  males,  and  to 
use  cheaper  females.  Starting  with  a  pure-bred  sire  and 
scrub  females  the  first  generation  are  half-bloods.  The 
second  generation  (or  the  offspring  of  these  half-blood 
females  and  of  a  pure-bred  sire)  are  three  quarters  pure ; 
the  members  of  the  fourth  generation  are  seven  eighths 
pure,  or  high  grades.  The  process  of  improving  inferior 
animals  by  the  use  of  pure-bred  sires  is  called  grading  up. 
It  is  the  cheapest  way  for  most  farmers  to  improve  their 
herds.  The  cheaper  females  intended  as  a  foundation  for 
the  herd  or  flock  ought  to  be  selected  from  the  best  of 
their  kind. 

The  high  grades  may  be  just  as  good  for  butter  or  beef 
or  other  special  use  as  are  the  pure-bred  animals,  but  for 
purposes  of  increase  they  are  less  valuable.  This  is  be- 
cause some  of  their  offspring  may  resemble  their  scrub  an- 
cestors. It  is  unwise,  therefore,  to  use  either  a  grade 
or  a  scrub  sire.  A  cross-bred  animal  is  one  having  one 
parent  belonging  to  one  breed  and  the  other  parent  to 
another.  When  the  parents  are  thus  widely  unlike,  the 
character  of  the  offspring  is  uncertain.  Such  violent 
crosses  are  generally  unwise. 

Advantages  of  raising  live-stock.  —  There  are  advan- 
tages in  raising  some  live-stock  even  on  farms  devoted 
chiefly  to  cotton,  sugar  cane,  tobacco,  or  grain.  Some  of 
the  main  reasons  why  live-stock  ought  to  be  raised  on 
most  farms  are  :  — 

(i)  Because  they  make  profitable  use  of  much  g^ass 
and  other  coarse  food  that  would  otherwise  be  wasted. 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   LIVE-STOCK 


283 


(2)  Because  they  enrich  the  farm  directly,  by  convert- 
ing most  of  their  food  into  fertilizing  material. 

(3)  Because  they  enrich  the  farm  indirectly,  by  causing 
the  farmer  to  grow  more  cowpeas,  clover,  and  other  soil- 
improving  forage  plants. 


Fig.  182. — A  Type  of  Live-stock  often  raised  in  Europe, 
BUT  LESS  Popular  in  this  Country 

The  picture  shows  a  goat  harnessed  to  a  smedl  cart, 
for  children's  amusement. 


SECTION   LII.     HORSES 


The  three  principal  classes  of  horses  are  (i)  draft 
horses,  (2)  coach  or  carriage  horses,  and  (3)  light  riding 
and  driving  horses. 


Fro.  183.  —  A  Draft  Ho- 


iEKON  ' 


Draft  horses.  —  There  are  many  breeds  of  draft  horses, 
most  of  them  coming  from  France,  Belgium,  England,  and 

'  All  fif^rcs  of  hones  and  also  Figs.  193,  194,  197,  199,  and  aoo  are  used 
by  pcrmiaaion  of  Tkt  BrtnUr's  Gaxttte,  Chicago. 

284 


HORSES  285 

Scotland.  Draft  horses  are  immense  animals,  generally 
weighing  from  1 500  to  2000  pounds.  Their  legs  are  rather 
short,  very  strong,  and  placed  wide  apart.  Their  bodies  are 
rounded ;  their  backs  are  broad,  showing  great  develop- 
ment of  muscles.  Their  shoulders  are  rather  upright  in- 
stead of  sloping.     This  upright  position  enables  them  to 


Fig.  184. — A  Draft  HuRbK;    Clydesdale 

throw  their  weight  and  strength  squarely  against  the  collar. 
Their  feet  are  large.  In  the  Southern  states  where  the 
mule  is  a  favorite  work  animal  on  the  farm,  the  draft  horses 
are  used  much  less  on  the  farms  than  in  the  cities. 


286 


AGRICULTURE 


Percherons. — The  Pcrch'e  ron  breed  originated  in  France. 
It  has  become  very  popular  in  the  United  States.  The 
colors  that  most  frequently  occur  are  black  and  all  shades 
of  gray.  The  Percheron  horse  is  a  very  heavy,  compactly 
built  animal,  with  short  legs  free  from  long  hairs  (Fig. 


Fic.  185.  —  A  Coach  Horse 


183).     A  good  Percheron  shows  style  in  form  and  move- 
ment, and  in  the  proudly  arched  neck. 

Clydesdales.  —  The  Clydes'dale  breed  originated  in  Scot- 
land.    The  colors  are  bay,  brown,  chestnut,  or  black;  often 


HORSES  287 

there  is  white  on  the  face  and  feet  (Fig.  184).  A  fringe 
of  long  hair  grows  out  behind  the  lower  portion  of  each  leg. 
Coach  or  carriage  horses,  —  A  coach  horse  is  a  large, 
stylish  animal,  lighter  and  more  active  than  the  draft  horse, 
but  larger  than  light  riding  and  driving  horses  (Fig.  185). 


Fig.  186.  —  American  Saddle  Horse 

Light  driving  and  riding  horses. — These  are  formed  for 
speed  and  hence  have  slender  bodies,  sloping  shoulders, 
and  long  legs  with  sloping  pasterns.  Thoroughbred  is  the 
name  of  a  breed  of  horses  that  are  very  speedy  at  the 
running  gait.     Thoroughbreds  have  been  useful  in  giving 


288 


AGRICULTURE 


speed,  endurance,  and  other  qualities  to  driving  and  riding 
horses  descended  from  them. 

Atnerican  trotters  owe  their  speed  largely  to  their 
thoroughbred  or  running  ancestors.  They  are  largely  used 
as  buggy  horses.     The  colors  are  various. 

The  American  saddle  horse  is  prized  for  its  easy  riding 
gaits.  The  best  saddle  horses  are  expected  to  have  five 
gaits;  namely,  (i)  walk,  (2)  trot,  (3)  canter,  (4)  rack  (an- 
other name  for  single  foot),  and  (5)  either  the  running  walk 


Fig.  187.  —  Shetland  Ponies 


or  slow  pace  or  fox  trot.  The  saddle  horse  should  be  of 
medium  size,  graceful  proportions,  and  should  have  stylish 
action  and  a  good  disposition  (Fig.  186). 

Shetland  ponies.  —  These  very  small  ponies  are  useful 
for  children  to  ride  and  drive.  They  are  usually  gentle  and 
make  delightful  pets.  The  height  is  oftenest  from  36  to  42 
inches  (Fig.  187).  Some  ponies  have  been  only  30  inches 
high.     Most  Shetland  ponies  are  compact  or  "  blocky  "  in 


HORSES  289 

form  and  stronger  than  their  small  size  would  suggest. 
Common  colors  are  black,  bay,  and  brown ;  grays,  chest- 
nuts, roans,  and  spotted  ponies  are  not  unusual. 

Mules.  —  Mules  are  preferred  to  horses  on  Southern 
farms.  They  pull  more  steadily,  are  less  high-spirited,  and 
are  put  to  work  at  an  earlier  age.  Southern  farmers  can 
easily  and  profitably  raise  their  own  mules. 

Care  of  horses  and  mules.  —  Some  of  the  most  important 
points  in  the  care  of  horses  and  mules  are  these:  — 

(i)  An  abundant  but  not  excessive  supply  of  food,  con- 
taining an  ample  amount  of  nitrogen. 

(2)  Clean,  dry  stables,  so  that  the  feet  may  not  become 
diseased. 

(3)  Frequent  watering,  best  before  meals. 

(4)  Regular  exercise. 

(5)  Careful  shoeing. 

Exercise.  —  Compare  several  horses  with  regard  to  the  following 
points :  slope  of  shoulders  ;  slope  of  pasterns  (the  part  of  the  leg  just 
above  the  foot)  ;  size  or  fineness  of  the  bones  in  the  lower  part  of 
the  leg. 

Have  you  read  "  Black  Beauty,"  a  book  that  tells  a  very  interesting 
tale  about  a  horse?  In  reading  it  you  will  find  not  only  pleasure,  but 
also  many  useful  hints  about  the  proper  management  of  horses. 


SECTION   LIII.     BEEF  CATTLE 

The  beef  type. — The  chief  use  of  the  beef  breeds  is  to  fur- 
nish meat.  The  form  that  is  desirable  in  a  beef  animal  is 
one  that  affords  the  largest  proportion  of  valuable  meat  and 
the  smallest  proportion  of  inferior  meat  and  waste.  Hence, 
the  neck  and  legs  should  be  short  and  the  body  full,  deep, 
and  rounded.    The  shape  of  a  beef  animal's  body  is  "blocky  " 


Fig.  1 88.  —  Showing  the  Bref  ForH 
Views  from  behind  and  from  the  side. 


and  somewhat  like  that  of  a  brick  set  on  edge  with  the 
edges  and  corners  rounded  off  (Fig.  i88).  The  best  cuts 
are  those  from  the  upper  part  of  the  body,  especially  in  the 
region  of  the  loins.  The  back  and  loins  of  a  beef  animal, 
therefore,  should  be  broad  and  deeply  covered  with  flesh. 

290 


BEEF   CATTLE 


291 


The   hind   quarters  must  be  fleshy.     Cows  of   the  ieef 
breeds  usually  give  only  enough  milk  for  their  calves. 

Most  beef  breeds  that  are  popular  in  the  United  States 
originated  in  England  and  Scotland.  A  mature  cow  of  the 
beef  breeds  often  weighs  15CX)  pounds  or  more,  or  nearly 
twice  the  weight  of  a  scrub  or  Jersey  cow.  The  males 
sometimes  weigh  more  than  2500  pounds. 


Fig.  189.  —  A  Hereford 


Even  grade  animals  of  the  beef  breeds  are  better  than 
scrubs  because  they  grow  larger,  mature  earlier,  and  afford 
a  larger  proportion  of  valuable  meat.  All  these  advantages 
can  be  obtained  by  the  purchase  of  a  pure-bred  sire. 


292 


AGRICULTURE 


BEEF   CATTLE  293 

The  Hereford  breed.  —  These  cattle  are  sometimes  called 
"White  Faces"  (Fig.  189).  The  face,  breast,  legs,  under- 
portion,  and  part  of  the  neck  are  white ;  most  of  the  body 
is  red.  The  Hereford  is  a  very  valuable  and  popular  breed 
and  has  been  found  especially  satisfactory  for  the  Western 
ranges. 

The  Aberdeen- Angus  breed.  —  Other  popular  names  for 
this  breed  are  Polled  Angus  and  Black  Polled.  The  color 
is  black  over  the  entire  body.  There  are  no  horns ;  even 
among  the  half-blood  Angus  grades  very  few  animals  have 
horns.  In  size,  the  Angus  is  slightly  below  the  Hereford 
and  Shorthorn.  It  has  a  very  blocky,  rounded  body.  The 
Galloway  (Fig.  191)  is  another  black,  hornless  breed. 

The  Shorthorn  breed. — The  horns  are  short,  and  in  the 
cow  they  are  gracefully  curved.  The  principal  colors  are 
(i)  solid  red,  (2)  red  and  white  mixed,  and  (3)  roan,  that  is, 
a  mottling  of  red  and  white.  The  Shorthorns  are  widely 
distributed  over  the  United  States.  They  are  most  valu- 
able for  beef,  but  in  some  families  of  Shorthorns  the  milk- 
producing  quality  has  been  maintained. 

The  Red  Polled  breed.  —  These  hornless  red  cattle  stand 
between  the  beef  breeds  and  the  dairy  breeds.  Red  Polled 
cattle  are  smaller  and  generally  less  "  blocky  "  than  the 
beef  breeds  mentioned  above.  Their  bodies,  however,  are 
rounded  and  plump.  The  breed  includes  many  excellent 
milkers,  and  also  many  animals  of  the  beef  type. 

Exercise.  —  At  home  or  on  the  farms  of  neighbors  select  the  most 
"  blocky  "  cow  you  can  find.  Compare  every  part  of  her  body  with  that 
of  some  more  angular  animal ;  also  compare  her  shape  with  those  shown 
in  the  pictures  of  the  beef  breeds.     If  especially   interested   in   beef 


294 


AGRICULTURE 


cattle,  write  to  the  Agricultural  College  of  your  state  for  score-card  or 
publication  showing  how  to  judge  beef  cattle. 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  Encourage  pupils  to  describe  specimens 
of  any  of  these  beef  breeds  that  they  have  seen.  If  the  class  can  inspect 
some  animal  of  the  beef  type,  whether  pure-bred,  grade,  or  native,  re- 
quire them  to  locate  the  parts  of  the  body  where  the  greatest  amounts 
of  valuable  meat  are  found.  Compare  the  shape  of  this  animal  with  the 
shapes  shown  in  the  pictures  of  beef  cattle. 


I-IC.   igi.- — A    HlN(H   ul    C;  \l  I.OWAY  StEEKS 


SECTION   LIV.     DAIRY   CATTLE 

The  dairy  type  of  cattle.  —  The  form  of  a  good  dairy 
cow  should  be  almost  the  opposite  to  that  of  a  good  beef 
cow.  She  should  have  a  thin  back,  wide,  prominent,  bony 
hips,  and  lean  hind-quarters  (Fig.  192).  If  there  is  much 
flesh  on  the  back,  loins,  and  hind-quarters  of  a  dairy  cow, 


Fig.  192.  —  Showing  the  Dairy  Form 
Views  from  behind  and  from  the  side. 

she  has  made  wrong  use  of  her  food,  which  should  have 
been  changed  into  milk  or  butter. 

The  barrel,  or  rear  portion  of  the  body,  must  be  large, 
so  that  in  it  she  may  store  away  much  food  while  conv.ert- 
ing  it  into  milk  and  butter.  Viewed  from  the  side,  her 
body  should  be  deeper  at  the  hind  flank  than  at  the  fore 
flank,  giving  a  wedge-shaped  appearance.  Viewed  from 
above,  the  dairy  cow  should  also  be  wedge-shaped,  having 
the  narrow  part  at  the  withers  on  top  of  the  shoulder 
blades  and  the  wide  part  at  the  hips. 

295 


296  AGRICULTURE 

The  udder  should  be  large  and  should  extend  well  for* 
ward.  The  loose  skin  forming  its  rear  portion  should 
extend  as  high  as  possible.  The  milk  veins  in  front  of 
the  udder  should  be  large  and  crooked,  and  the  "  milk 
well "  where  they  enter  the  chest  cavity  should  be  large. 


Fig.  193.  —  A  Jtitotv  Cow 

The  milk  veins  carry  blood  from  the  udder  where  it  has 
helped  make  milk.  If  they  are  large,  it  shows  that  much 
blood  flows  past  the  udder  for  use  in  making  milk. 

The  Jersey  breed.  —  This  breed  originated  on  the  little 
island  of  Jersey  between  England  and  France  (Fig. 
193).  The  laws  of  that  island  do  not  permit  any  other 
breed  to  be  introduced.  The  Jersey  is  now  the  most  pop- 
ular dairy  breed  in  the  United  States.  This  is  because  its 
milk  is  so  rich.     A  Jersey  cow  often  produces  more  than 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


297 


4CX)  pounds  of  butter  in  a  year,  and  some  of  them  have 
records  of  more  than  twice  that  amount. 

The  Jersey  cow  has  a  small,  angular,  lean  body,  a  fine 
and  beautiful  head  with  short  crumpled  horns,  and  usually 
a  rich,  yellowish    skin.     Common   colors  among  Jerseys 


Fig.  194.  —  A  Holstein  Cow 

are  silver-gray  and  fawn  color.  White  markings  are 
frequent.  The  legs  and  nose  are  often  black.  A  Jersey 
or  even  a  Jersey  grade  can  generally  be  distinguished  from 
most  other  cattle  by  the  "  mustache."  This  is  a  ring  of 
light-colored  hair  around  the  muzzle  or  nose. 

The  Guernsey  breed.  —  This  breed  is  very  similar  to 
the  Jersey,  but  the  form  is  somewhat  larger  and  coarser, 
and  light  colors  are  less  common.  Guernsey  milk  is  quite 
as  rich  as  Jersey.  These  two  breeds  are  entitled  to  be 
called   the  two   principal  butter  breeds.     The   Guernsey 


298 


AGRICULTURE 


originated  on  the   island  of  Guernsey,  which  is  near  the 
island  of  Jersey. 

The  Holstein-Friesian  breed.  —  These  cattle  (pronounced 
Hol'stlne  Frez'ySn)  originated  on  the  rich  land  near  the 


back 


side 


dewlap -^S      1  (:£^pif 


\^  fhigh 


Fig.  195.  —  Pasts  of  the  Cow 

sea-coast  in  Holland  (Fig.  194).  They  are  large,  angular, 
black-and-white  cattle,  and  give  larger  amounts  of  milk 
than  any  other  breed.  Some  cows  have  given  more  than 
10  gallons  of  milk  in  one  day.  However,  the  milk  is  not 
rich. 

Exercise.  —  Select  some  good  milch  cow  of  the  dairy  type.  Make 
a  drawing  of  the  outer  line  of  her  udder.  Locate  the  parts  of  her  body, 
using  Fig.  195. 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  Doubtless  a  good  dairy  cow  can  be  in- 
spected by  teacher  and  class.  If  so,  instruct  pupils  in  locating  parts 
of  body  and  in  noting  their  correspondence  with  the  "  dairy  shape,"  as 
suggested  in  text  and  illustrations.  This  exercise  will  liear  frequent 
repetition.    Then  compare,  in  all  points,  any  two  cows  placed  together. 


SECTION    LV.     SHEEP 

Long  before  cotton  was  known,  men  and  women  wore 
garments  made  of  wool.  The  sheep  still  furnishes  a  large 
part  of  our  clothing.  This  animal  is  as  useful  for  its  flesh, 
called  mutton,  as  for  its  wool. 

Sheep  are  more  easily  kept  than  almost  any  other  ani- 


FiG.  196.  —  Dorset  Sheep 

mal.  They  live  chiefly  on  coarse  feed  that  would  other- 
wise be  wasted  and  eat  weeds  which  horses,  cattle,  and  hogs 
will  not  touch.  Thus  they  help  to  keep  the  farm  clean 
and  neat  and  improve  the  land  on  which  they  pasture. 
This  explains  the  true  proverb  that  "The  hoof  of  the  sheep 

299 


300 


AGRICULTURE 


is  golden."  Every  farm  ought  to  have  its  flock  of  sheep. 
The  wool  generally  pays  the  cost  of  keeping  them.  The 
lambs  are  clear  profit,  and  usually  a  flock  produces  more 
lambs  than  there  are  ewes.  A  lamb  will  often  sell  when  a 
few  months  old  for  as  much  or  more  than  its  mother. 
Unfortunately,  sheep  are   subject  to  injury  and  death 


I'lG.    197.  —  SUROPSUIRE  SuttP 

from  worms  in  the  stomach  and  intestines.  Change  of 
pasture  at  brief  intervals  is  the  best  means  of  avoiding 
these  troubles. 

There  are  three  types  of  sheep,  fine-wool,  medium- 
wool,  and  long-wool.  The  long-wool  breeds,  which  are 
used  both  for  mutton  and  wool,  have  not  been  extensively 
raised  in  warm  climates. 


SHEEP  301 

Medium-wool  breeds.  —  The  medium-wool  breeds  include 
the  Dorset,  Shropshire,  Southdown,  and  others.  They 
afford  good  mutton  and  a  fair  amount  of  wool. 

The  Dorset  is  a  sheep  of  medium  size.  Both  sexes  have 
horns.  Dorsets  are  prized  for  the  early  date  at  which 
their  lambs  come  and  for  the  frequent  occurrence  of  twin 
lambs  (Fig.  196). 

The  Shropshire  (Fig.  197)  is  of  medium  size  or  above. 


Fig.  198.  —  A  Southdown 

It  is  a  popular  breed  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States. 
The  color  of  the  face,  ears,  and  legs  is  very  dark  brown 
or  black.     The  Shropshire  has  no  horns. 

The  Southdown  (Fig.  198)  is  a  favorite  mutton  breed 
over  almost  the  whole  world.  Its  face,  ears,  and  legs 
are  of  a  brownish  color,  but  of  a  lighter  shade  than 
those  of  the  Shropshire.  The  Southdown  is  a  little 
smaller  than  the  Shropshire  and  affords  somewhat  less 
wool. 


302  AGRICULTURE 

The  fine-wool  breeds.  —  These   include   several    breeds 
of  Merinos  (Fig.  199).     Merinos  are  most  valuable  for  the 


Fio.  199.  —  A  Mekino 

production  of  wool,  but  are  not  the  best  for  mutton.  The 
wool  is  much  greater  in  amount  and  contains  more  grease 
than  that  of  other  breeds. 

Exercise.  —  Write  in  your  notebook  the  month  in  which  shearing 
is  done,  asking  older  persons  if  you  do  not  know.  If  any  member  of 
the  class  has  seen  sheep  sheared  by  machinery,  he  should  be  prepared 
to  tell  how  it  was  done.  If  there  is  a  flock  of  sheep  near  you,  watch 
them  while  grazing  and  notice  the  weeds  that  they  consume  which 
other  live-stock  would  not  eat. 


SECTION   LVI.    SWINE 

It  costs  so  little  to  make  a  start  in  improving  the  hogs 
on  any  farm  that  scrubs,  or  razorbacks,  ought  soon  to 
disappear.  Pure-bred  hogs  and  grades  mature  at  a  much 
earlier  age  than  scrubs  and  grow  to  a  much  larger  size. 

Hogs  are  healthier  and  much  more  profitable  when  they 
live  partly  on  pasturage.  But  even  with  the  best  pastures 
of  grass  or  clover,  it  pays  to  feed  them  some  grain.  In 
the  Southern  states,  hogs  can  be  raised  on  very  little  corn 
by  growing  artichokes,  chufas,  vetches,  clovers,  and  alfalfa 
for  them  to  eat  in  cool  weather.  When  the  weather  be- 
comes warm,  there  should  be  ready  for  them  fields  of  sor- 
ghum, cowpeas,  peanuts,  and  soy  beans,  besides  pastures. 

It  costs  less  to  put  a  pound  of  flesh  on  a  young  hog 
than  on  one  more  than  a  year  old.  It  is  generally  more 
profitable,  therefore,  to  make  a  pig  grow  large  enough  to 
be  made  into  pork  when  ten  to  twelve  months  old  than  to 
feed  it  longer. 

Hog  cholera  and  swine  plague  destroy  great  numbers 
of  hogs  every  year.  They  are  due  to  germs  that  have 
been  brought  from  other  places  where  the  diseases  have  oc- 
curred. They  are  carried  by  means  of  running  water,  by 
loose  animals,  by  buzzards,  and  even  by  the  shoes  of  men. 
These  diseases  can  generally  be  prevented  by  not  allowing 
the  hogs  to  range  outside  of  their  pasture,  and  by  keeping 
out  of  the  hog  pasture  and  lots  everything  that  has  been 

303 


304  AGRICULTURE 

on  a  farm  where  these  troubles  have  recently  occurred.  It 
is  safest  for  hogs  not  to  drink  water  from  a  stream  that 
originates  beyond  one's  own  property. 

Breeds  of  hogs.  —  There  are  many  breeds  of  hogs. 
Among  the  most  popular  are  the  Berkshire,  Poland-China, 
Duroc-Jersey,  and  Chester  White. 

The  Berkshire  is  a  large  or  medium  black  hog  with  white 


I'lU.    2QO.      -A   rOLAND-CUl-NA 

markings  on  the  face,  feet,  and  legs.  The  face  is  short 
and  sharply  dished.     The  ears  are  held  stiff  or  rig^d. 

The  Poland-China  is  a  large  or  medium  black  hog  with 
slight  white  markings  on  the  face  and  feet.  The  face  is 
not  sharply  dished.  The  tips  of  the  ears  droop  (Fig. 
200). 

The  Duroc-Jersey  is  a  large  reddish  hog  with  shape  of 
face  and  ears  like  the  Poland-China.  There  are  many 
pigs  in  a  litter. 


SWINE 


305 


The  Chester  White  is  a  large  white  hog  with  drooping 
ears.  White  hogs  are  regarded  as  less  hardy  in  the  South 
than  those  of  other  colors. 

Exercise.  —  Compare  a  pure-bred  or  good  grade  hog  with  a  razor- 
back,  noting  especially  differences  in  nose,  neck,  back,  and  hams. 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  Write  to  the  Agricultural  College  in 
your  state  for  score-card  for  judging  hogs.  These  sheets  contain  suffi- 
cient directions.  It  is  instructive  and  interesting,  after  some  practice  in 
judging  fairly  good  hogs,  to  have  pupils  engage  in  a  judging  contest. 


Fig.  201.  — Shoats  on  Pasture 

Can  you  expect  the  same  plumpness  in  young  shoats  living  largely  on  pasturage 
as  in  older  fattening  hogs  ? 


SECTION  LVII.     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF 
POULTRY 

The  poultry  products  of  the  United  States  are  esti- 
mated to  be  worth  about  five  hundred  million  dollars  each 
year.  The  hen  has  even  a  stronger  claim  than  this  on  our 
care.  In  her  eggs  and  in  the  flesh  of  her  chickens  she 
furnishes  the  most  nutritious  kind  of  human  food.  Fowls 
are  still  further  useful  on  the  farm  because  of  the  large 
numbers  of  injurious  insects  that  they  destroy.  They  also 
make  profitable  use  of  waste  material,  such  as  grass,  sur- 
plus vegetables,  bruised  fruit,  and  spilled  grain.  Some 
kinds  of  fowls  afford  valuable  feathers. 

Improving  the  flock. —  By  saving  eggs  from  only  the 
best  layers  for  hatching  there  will  be  every  year  an  increase 
in  the  number  of  eggs  laid  by  the  flock.  Hens  have  been 
raised  that  produced  more  than  two  hundred  eggs  in  a 
year  (Fig.  202).  This  was  done  by  selecting  through 
several  generations  the  best  layers  and  the  roosters  hatched 
from  eggs  laid  by  the  best  hens.  Those  who  cannot  at 
once  have  pure-bred  fowls  should  improve  the  flock  by 
using  only  pure-bred  cocks. 

Food  for  poultry.  —  Fowls  lay  best  and  grow  best  when 
allowed  some  exercise.  The  insects  that  they  catch 
while  ranging  in  orchard  or  pasture  or  field  form  a  most 
nutritious  diet.     When  fowls  are  not  permitted  to  range, 

306 


d 


THE  MANAGEMENT   OF  POULTRY 


307 


the  food  given  them  must  be  rich  in  nitrogen.  Foods 
suitable  for  supplying  nitrogen  to  poultry  are  the  seeds  of 
cowpeas  and  soy  beans,  leaves  of  clover  and  of  all  legumes, 


Fig.  202.- 


■A  White  Leghorn  Hen  that  LAii>  216  Eggs  in 
Ten  Months 


meat  scraps,  skimmed  milk,  and  fresh,  ground  bones. 
These  should  be  fed  mixed  with  the  usual  daily  supply  of 
corn,  wheat,  or  oats. 

Poultry  thrives  best  when  furnished  with  a  variety  of 
food  and  when  constantly  supplied  with  green  food.  A 
field  of  rape,  alfalfa,  or  clover  should  be  grown  especially 
for  poultry.  When  fowls  are  confined,  green  food  ought 
to  furnish  part  of  the  daily  ration. 


308  AGRICULTURE 

Grit  —  Fowls  prepare  their  food,  not  by  chewing  it  like 
larger  animals,  but  by  grinding  it  against  grit  in  the  giz- 
zard. Hence,  fowls  must  have  an  abundance  of  grit,  which 
may  be  sand,  gravel,  cinders,  pounded  glass  or  oyster 
shells,  or  any  finely  divided  hard  substance.  If  they  range, 
fowls  can  pick  up  enough  of  this.  If  confined,  they  should 
be  supplied  with  some  form  of  grit,  as  clean  sand  or  crushed 
oyster  shells.  The  oyster  shells  are  especially  useful  to 
laying  hens  because,  besides  serving  in  the  gizzard  to  grind 
the  food,  they  furnish  lime.  Much  lime  is  needed  to  form 
the  shell  of  the  egg. 

Destroying  vermin.  —  The  profits  from  poultry  are  much 
reduced  by  the  discomfort  caused  by  lice  and  mites.  When 
fowls  can  scratch  and  roll  in  the  dust,  the  dust  often  suffo- 
cates the  lice.  A  box  of  fine  dry  road-dust,  or  sifted  ashes, 
should  be  kept  in  the  poultry-house  so  that  the  fowls  can 
regularly  take  their  dust  baths  and  thus  destroy  many 
vermin.  Chicken  mites  are  not  all  thus  killed.  Many 
leave  the  fowls  after  tormenting  them  all  night,  and  spend 
the  daytime  on  the  roosts  and  walls  of  the  poultry-house. 
Hence,  the  house  ought  to  be  whitewashed  frequently  with 
a  lime  wash  to  which  crude  carbolic  acid  has  been  added. 
The  orchard  spray  pump  may  be  used  and  the  walls 
and  roosts  sprayed  either  with  this  kind  of  whitewash 
or  with  kerosene  emulsion.  Directions  for  making  this 
mixture,  so  useful  for  killing  insects,  are  given  in  the 
Appendix. 

By  having  the  nests  movable,  these  can  be  brought  out 
of  the  hen-house  at  frequent  intervals  and  the  straw  burned, 
thus  ridding  them  of  vermin.     Some  poultrymen  dip  their 


THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  POULTRY       309 

fowls  in  a  mixture  made  of  fifty  parts  water  to  one  part  of 

chlo'  ro  naph  tho'  le  um. 

Water.  —  Chickens  need  a  constant  supply  of  clean  water. 

A  good  way  to  keep  it  clean  is  to  buy  a  water  fountain  in 

which  they  cannot  make  the  water  unclean. 

A  home-made  drinking   fountain   can  be 

made  as  follows  :  with  a  nail  make  a  hole 

in  a  can  about  half  an  inch  from  the  open 

end.     Fill  the  can  full  of  water  and  over  it 

place  a  pan  about  two  inches  deep.    Quickly 

invert  both.    The  water  will  stand  in  the  pan 
Fig.  203.  —  A  Home- 
made   Drinking  as  high  as  the  hole  m  the  can  (Fig.  203). 

Fountain  Poultry-houses,  incubators,  and  brooders. 

a,  o  e  in  inner  tin  — ^  good  poultry-house  should  be  venti- 
lated, but  not  crossed  by  draughts  of  air. 
Sunshine  should  be  let  in  to  keep  it  dry  and  to  destroy 
germs  of  certain  diseases.  The  roosts  should  be  movable 
and  smooth,  so  as  not  to  afford  hiding  places  for  vermin. 
Some  careful  poultry-breeders  build  a  platform  under  the 
roost  and  a  foot  or  two  below.  This  keeps  the  floor  clean 
and  saves  all  the  manure,  which  is  much  richer  than  that 
from  the  larger  farm  animals. 

Exercise. — Weigh  a  dozen  eggs  ;  write  the  weight  in  your  notebook. 
Are  they  all  of  the  same  size?  Of  the  same  color?  Try  to  think  why 
eggs  that  have  become  greasy  do  not  hatch  well. 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  Encourage  statements  from  pupils  about 
familiar  facts  connected  with  the  management  of  poultry,  kinds  of  foods 
used,  best  location  of  nests  for  different  fowls,  etc.  If  any  one  can  find 
an  old  can  and  pan,  let  him  or  her  make  a  drinking  fountain,  and  show  in 
class  how  it  operates.  See  whether  any  pupil  would  like  to  make  one 
for  use  at  home.     Parents  would  appreciate  one. 


SECTION  LVIII.    BREEDS  AND  VARIETIES  OF 
CHICKENS 

It  has  been  found  easy  to  create  new  breeds  of  chickens 
by  selection  and  by  crossing.  As  a  result,  there  are  now 
more  than  one  hundred  varieties  of  chickens.  These  may 
be  divided  into  four  general  classes,  according  to  the  use 
to  which  each  is  best  suited.     These  classes  are  :  — 

( 1 )  The  egg  breeds. 

(2)  The  egg-and-meat  breeds. 

(3)  The  meat  breeds. 

(4)  The  fancy  or  ornamental  breeds. 

The  egg  breeds.  —  The  breeds  of  this  class  are  so  named 
because  they  lay  more  eggs  than  those  of  the  other  classes. 
The  fowls  are  small  and  active.  They  are  poor  sitters. 
Among  the  leading  egg  breeds  are  the  Leghorns,  Minor- 
cas,  Spanish,  Red  Caps,  Andalusians,  and  the  Hamburgs. 
They  mature  early,  pullets  beginning  to  lay  before  they 
are  five  months  old.  The  eggs  of  this  class  are  generally 
pure  white. 

Most  breeds  of  each  class  are  again  subdivided  into  vari- 
eties named  according  to  color  of  plumage  or  shape  of 
comb.  In  other  respects,  these  varieties  of  each  breed  are 
alike.  The  Leghorns  include  eight  varieties  ;  among  them 
are  the  White,  Brown,  and  Buff  Leghorns.  A  Leghorn 
hen  should  lay  between  150  and  200  eggs  in  a  year  (Fig. 

310 


BREEDS  AND  VARIETIES  OF  CHICKENS  311 


Fig.  204.  —  Black  Minorca  Hen 


Fig.  205. —Barred  Plymouth  Rocks 


312 


AGRICULTURE 


202).     Minorcas  (Fig.  204)  include  both  black  and  white 
varieties.     Their  eggs  are  larger,  but  not  so  numerous  as 

those  of  the  Leghorn. 

£gg-and-meat  breeds. 
— Hens  of  this  class  are 
of  medium  to  large  size. 
They  are  good  layers, 
though  not  equal  in 
this  respect  to  the  egg 
breeds.  They  are  good 
sitters  and  mothers. 
Their  eggs  are  usually 
of  a  brownish  shade  of 
white,  and  so  are  those 
of  the  meat  breeds. 
Among  the  most  popular  breeds  of  this  class  are  the 
Plymouth  Rocks  (Fig.   205),  Wyandottes,   Rhode  Island 


;<?- 


1  h 


DTTE 


Fw.  «o7.  —  SavEK-LACSD  Wyakdottb 


BREEDS   AND    VARIETIES   OF   CHICKENS 


313 


Reds,  and  Orpingtons.  There  are  three  varieties  or  colors 
of  Plymouth  Rocks,  Barred  (Fig.  205),  White,  and  Buff. 
Wyandottes  are  divided  into  eight  varieties,  including  the 
White  (Fig.  206)  and  the  Silver-laced  (Fig.  207). 

Meat  breeds.  —  These  include  the  largest  fowls.  The 
hens  Uy  fewer  eggs  than  do  the  hens  of  either  of  the 
other  classes.  These  fowls 
are  gentle  and  good  sitters. 
Their  large  size  renders  them 
less  active  and  less  able  to 
search  for  food  than  the 
smaller  breeds.  Hence,  they 
require  more  care  and  food. 

The  principal  meat  breeds 
are  the  Brahma  (Fig.  208), 
Cochin,  and  Langshan.  Each 
is  subdivided  into  varieties  of 
different  colors.  The  Light 
Brahma  is  the  largest  of  all  chickens, 
have  feathers  on  the  leg  or  shank. 


'# 


Fig.  208.  —  Light  Brahma  Rooster 


All  three  breeds 


Exercise.  — Write  in  your  notebook  the  names  of  all  the  breeds  of 
chickens  you  know.  What  is  the  color  of  each  ?  What  is  the  color  of 
the  leg  or  shank  ?  How  many  toes  have  chickens  ?  Why  are  the  feet 
of  ducks  and  geese  different  from  those  of  chickens  and  turkeys  ? 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  For  fuller  description  of  each  breed  and 
variety  of  chickens,  write  to  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
for  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  51. 


SECTION   LIX.     PRINCIPLES   OF   FEEDING 
ANIMALS 

Animals  cannot  feed  on  the  minerals  in  the  soil  nor 
on  the  carbon  dioxid  in  the  air.  The  plant  lives  upon 
both.  The  chief  use  of  the  plant  to  man  is  in  chang- 
ing the  minerals  from  the  soil  and  the  carbon  dioxid  from 
the  air  into  substances  fit  to  nourish  man  and  his  servants, 
the  domestic  animals.  Plants  form  the  natural  food  of  the 
animals  of  the  farm. 

The  same  classes  of  substances  are  found  in  the  bodies 
of  plants  and  animals.  These  are  water,  ash,  and  protein 
(that  is,  materials  containing  nitrogen).  Each  of  these  sub- 
stances in  the  plant  goes  to  form  somewhat  similar  matter 
in  the  animal  body.  But  plants  contain  substances  not 
found  in  the  flesh  of  animals ;  these  are  starch  and  sugar. 
Yet  starch  and  sugar  are  among  the  most  important  foods 
of  animals.  Instead  of  adding  these  to  its  own  body  un- 
chai)ged,  the  animal  converts  starch  and  sugar  into  animal 
fat,  or  uses  them  as  fuel. 

Ash.  —  This  is  the  part  of  the  dry  matter  of  plants  or 
animals  that  will  not  burn.  There  is  generally  an  abun- 
dance of  ash  in  the  common  foods  to  supply  all  that  animals 
need.  But  pigs  fed  on  com  alone  without  any  pasturage 
may  be  helped  by  giving  them  wood  ashes,  which  aid  in 
the  formation  of  their  bones  and  in  other  ways.     Fowls 

3M 


PRINCIPLES   OF   FEEDING  ANIMALS  315 

too,  when  confined  and  fed  on  corn,  need  ash,  in  the  form 
of  ground  bone  and  the  like. 

Protein.  —  In  plants  and  animals  most  substances  con- 
taining nitrogen  are  called  protein  (pronounced  pro'te  In). 
Forms  of  protein  are  the  white  of  eggs  and  the  curd  in 
soured  milk.  The  protein  of  plants  is  used  by  the  animal 
to  make  lean  meat,  muscles,  blood,  and  curd  in  milk.  Men 
or  farm  animals  doing  heavy  work  require  an  abundance 
of  this  substance.  So  do  cows  when  giving  much  milk. 
Among  the  foods  richest  in  protein  are  cotton-seed  meal 
and  both  the  hay  and  the  seeds  of  leguminous  plants.  In- 
deed, seeds  of  all  kinds  contain  a  considerable  proportion 
of  protein. 

Fuel  for  heat  and  force.  —  The  animal  body  is  a  ma- 
chine with  much  work  to  do.  Even  an  idle  horse  expends 
some  force  or  work  in  the  circulation  of  the  blood  and 
the  digestion  of  food.  All  the  work  the  horse  has  to  do 
increases  the  force  or  energy  he  must  expend.  Hence, 
the  horse  needs  to  use  a  part  of  his  food  to  produce  force 
or  motion  just  as  much  as  a  steam  engine  needs  burning 
coal  to  furnish  power.  An  animal  needs  some  food  to 
serve  as  fuel  to  keep  the  body  warm.  Thus  a  part  of  the 
food  is  consumed,  or  slowly  "  burned,"  in  the  body  in 
order  to  be  changed  into  heat  and  force.  Among  the  sub- 
stances that  serve  as  fuel  to  produce  heat  and  force  are 
starch  and  sugar.  Starch,  sugar,  and  the  coarse  fiber  of 
plants  are  called  car  bo  hy'drates.  This  is  because  they 
consist  of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  in  addition  to  oxygen. 

Fattening.  —  An  animal  that  digests  more  carbohydrates 
than  it  needs  for  heat  and  force  changes  the  surplus  into 


3l6  AGRICULTURE 

fat,  whfch  it  stores  in  its  body,  or  adds  to  its  milk.  No 
fattening  can  occur  until  after  all  food  necessary  to  do 
the  work  of  the  animal's  body  has  first  been  provided. 
Fat.  —  Fat  or  oil  is  abundant  in  the  seeds  of  some  plants, 
as  in  cotton  seed,  flaxseed,  soy  beans,  and  peanuts.  The 
fat  of  plants  can  be  used  by  the  animal  to  make  fat  in  the 

HOW  THE  ANIMAL  USES  THE  FOOD  IT  GETS  FROM  THE  PLANT. 
KIND  OF  FOOD  USED  IN 

IN  PLANT  ANIMAL  BODY  FOR 


Starch,  *e:=£^^— "" 

Sugrar,  etc 


III:-^»  Heat 


r^^  Force 


Lean  meat,   musc'es, 

Prote'in"^^^ ^blood,  bone,  eggs,  wool, 

curd  in  milk,  etc. 


Ash Bones,  eggshells, 

ash  in  lean  meat,  milk,etc. 


animal  body.  Fat  in  the  food  is  also  used  for  fuel  to 
produce  heat  and  force.  Indeed,  one  pound  of  fat  when 
burned  makes  about  two  and  one  fourth  times  as  much 
heat  as  one  pound  of  carbohydrates. 

If  it  does  not  have  enough  protein,  the  animal  will  suffer, 
because  nothing  else  can  take  the  place  of  protein  in 
making  lean  meat,  muscles,  blood,  bone,  eggs,  wool,  and 
curd  in  milk.    However,  if  fats  or  carbohydrates  are  omitted 


PRINCIPLES   OF   FEEDING   ANIMALS  317 

entirely,  the  other  substances  can  take  their  place.  But 
the  omission  or  insufficient  supply  of  any  of  these  is 
unwise  and  unprofitable. 

Animals  differ  in  the  use  of  food.  — Young  animals  re- 
quire less  food  than  older  ones  to  increase  their  weights 
equally.  It  is  much  more  profitable  to  fatten  a  hog  less 
than  a  year  old  than  one  nearly  two  years  old. 

Hogs  and  chickens  require  most  of  their  food  in  con- 
densed or  concentrated  form.  Horses  need  about  half 
concentrated  food  and  half  bulky  food,  like  hay.  Cattle 
and  sheep  may  do  well  on  a  ration  that  consists  chiefly  of 
bulky  foods. 

Animals  of  the  same  breed  differ  greatly  in  the  use 
they  make  of  their  food.  One  fattens  on  much  less  food 
than  another  does.  Experience  and  study  enable  good 
judges  of  animals  to  select  those  that  fatten  most  readily. 

Exercise.  —  Weigh  an  exact  quart  or  gallon  of  corn,  corn  meal, 
wheat  bran,  cotton-seed  meal,  and  any  other  common  "  grain  feeds  " 
that  are  convenient.  Write  the  weights  in  your  notebook  and  compare 
them  with  the  weights  that  your  classmates  find.  Ask  your  parents 
what  are  the  cheapest  foods  for  feeding  cows. 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  No  portion  of  the  tables  following  is  to 
be  memorized.  They  are  for  reference  in  working  problems  suggested 
in  the  next  section.  In  case  the  sixth  grade  studies  this  book,  or  in 
case  the  class  is  backward  in  arithmetic,  the  whole  of  the  next  section 
may  be  omitted.  Do  not,  however,  omit  Section  LIX.  If  the  class 
has  studied  an  elementary  book  on  physiology,  require  the  pupils  to 
read  now  those  parts  of  it  bearing  on  digestion  and  food. 


SECTION  LX.     CALCULATING   RATIONS 
FOR   LIVE-STOCK 

A  RATION  is  a  supply  of  food  for  an  animal  for  one  day. 
It  is  called  a  balanced  ration  when  it  contains  just  the 
proportion  of  digestible  protein  to  the  carbohydrates  and 
fat  that  tests  have  shown  to  be  best  for  that  particular  kind 
of  animal.  A  balanced  ration  for  most  animals  contains 
five  or  six  times  as  much  digestible  carbohydrates  and  fat 
as  digestible  protein.  The  proportion  between  digestible 
protein  and  carbohydrates  and  fat  is  called  the  nutritive 
ratio.  It  is  obtained  by  multiplying  the  fat  by  2j,  adding 
this  product  to  the  carbohydrates,  and  dividing  the  sum 
by  the  quantity  of  protein. 

The  table  on  page  321  shows  what  amounts  of  each  of 
these  substances  have  been  found  best  for  different  kinds 
of  animals.  The  longer  table  on  page  322  shows  how 
many  pounds  of  digestible  substances  there  are  in  100 
pounds  of  the  most  common  foods.  From  these  two  tables 
can  be  calculated  a  ration  that  is  best  for  a  cow  giving 
milk,  for  a  work  horse,  or  for  other  animals. 

Examine  both  tables  to  learn  whether  a  ration  for  a 
horse  at  medium  work  could  be  made  from  corn  and  oat 
straw.  The  shorter  table  shows  that  a  ration  for  a  horse 
ought  to  contain  about  6.2  times  as  many  pounds  of  di- 

318 


CALCULATING   RATIONS   FOR   LIVE-STOCK        319 

gestible  carbohydrates  and  fat  as  of  protein.  The  longer 
table  shows  that  corn  has  9.8  and  oat  straw  33.8  times 
as  much  carbohydrates  and  fat  as  protein.  Evidently  a 
mixture  of  corn  and  oat  straw  contains  too  large  a  pro- 
portion of  carbohydrates,  which  means  that  it  contains 
too  little  protein.  This  protein  can  be  supplied  by  using 
cowpea  or  clover  hay  in  place  of  the  straw. 

In  feeding  animals  first  be  sure  that  enough  protein 
and  carbohydrates  are  supplied.  It  may  be  proper  to 
give  a  slight  excess  of  protein  if  this  does  not  increase 
the  cost.  The  more  protein  fed,  the  richer  is  the  fer- 
tilizer. 

Example. — Calculate  a  ration  for  a  cow  producing  22  pounds 
of  milk  per  day,  using  grass  hay,  cotton-seed  meal,  and  corn.  The 
table  on  page  321  shows  that  a  cow  needs  2.5  pounds  digestible 
protein,  13  pounds  of  carbohydrates,  and  .5  of  a  pound  of  fat.  Start 
by  guessing  how  much  of  each  food  might  perhaps  serve.  Take  1 5  pounds 
of  hay,  5  pounds  of  corn  or  corn  meal,  and  3  pounds  of  cotton-seed  meal. 
By  dividing  the  figures  in  the  table  on  page  322  by  100  so  as  to  find 
the  weight  of  protein,  fat,  etc.,  in  every  pound  of  grass  hay,  cotton-seed 
meal,  and  corn  respectively,  the  calculations  in  the  first  table  can  be 
made.     (See  page  320.) 

The  ration  is  thus  figured  to  be  15  pounds  grass  hay,  8  pounds  corn 
meal,  and  3  pounds  cotton-seed  meal. 

The  calculated  ration  contains  more  than  enough  protein  and  fat,  but 
lacks  about  one  pound  of  carbohydrates.  Its  excess  of  fat,  .31  of 
a  pound  (after  being  multiplied  by  2\)  makes  up  most  of  this  de- 
ficiency. The  calculated  ration  need  not  contain  the  exac/  amounts 
required  in  the  standard  rations  in  the  short  table. 

Exercise.  —  In  preparing  this  lesson  pupils  should  rule  their  note- 
books as  in  the  next  table ;  copy  the  example ;  understand  how  every 
figure  is  obtained ;  and  perform  the  suggested  multiplications.  To 
work  the  optional  problems,  the  notebook  should  be  ruled  in  the  same 
way  as  in  the  example  worked. 


320 


AGRICULTURE 


In  each  rovHD  or  food 

Pounds 

DiCKSTIBLB 

raoTUN 

Pounds 

dicbstiblb 

CA«ao- 

HVDKATBS 

Pounds 

DiCKs-nats 

rAT 

15  lbs.  grass  hay  x  .059  lb.  protein     = 

.885 

.. 

.. 

15  lbs.  grass  hay  x  .409  lb.  carbohyd.= 

6.135 

1 5  lbs.  grass  hay   X  .01 2  lb.  fat             = 

.180 

5  lbs.  corn  meal  X  .078  lb.  protein     = 

.390 

. . 

5  lbs.  corn  meal  X  .667  lb.  carbohyd.= 

3-335 

5  lbs.  corn  meal  x  .043  lb.  fat.            = 

.»35 

3  lbs.  cotton -seed  meal  x  .372  lb. 

protein                                          = 

1. 116 

3  lbs.  cotton-seed  meal  X  .169  lb. 

carbohydrates                              = 

.507 

3  lbs.  cotton-seed  meal  X  .122  lb. 

fat 

.366 

Total 

2. 39* 

9-977 

.691 

Compared  with  standard 

Lacks  .119 

Lacks  2.03 

Excess  .18 

Add  3  lbs.  more  of  corn  meal,  con- 

taining (3  X  .078),  etc.    .     .     . 

.234 

2.001 

.129 

Total 

2.625 

11.978 

.810 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  The  following  problems  are  optional, 
and,  if  assigned,  they  should  be  divided  into  several  lessons.  They 
are  solved  in  the  same  way  as  the  example  just  given,  and  may  be 
supplemented  by  original  problems  requiring  calculations  of  rations 
for  any  class  of  animals,  using  the  foods  most  common  in  any  locality. 
Rations  consisting  largely  of  cotton  seed  and  cotton-seed  meal  cannot 
be  made  to  approach  very  closely  to  the  standards.  They  will  contain 
an  excess  of  protein  and  fat  and  not  enough  carbohydrates.  But  they 
are  satisfactory  in  the  South,  where  the  extra  protein  is  cheap. 

If  it  should  be  desired  to  increase  the  number  of  problems  and  to 
make  them  apply  to  larger  or  smaller  animals,  the  proportions  of  pro- 
tein, fat,  etc.,  would  be  unchanged,  but  the  total  amount  of  each  food 
would  be,  for  example,  four  fifths  as  much  for  an  animal  weighing  800 
pounds  as  for  one  weighing  1000  pound.s. 

Helps  in  teaching  feeding  and  in  working  such  problems  may  be  had 
from  bulletins  from  your  state  experiment  station,  or  from  those  of  the 


CALCULATING   RATIONS  FOR   LIVE-STOCK 


321 


United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  especially  (torn  Farmers' 
Bulletin  No.  22.  You  may  expect  the  figures  in  different  books  show- 
ing the  composition  of  foods  to  vary  slightly. 

Problem  i.  How  many  pounds  of  corn  will  be  required  to  supply 
enough  carbohydrates  for  a  fattening  pig,  weighing  200  pounds  ? 

Problem  2.  How  much  soy-bean  seed  should  be  added  to  the  amount 
of  corn  just  found  to  supply  the  deficiency  in  nitrogen. 

Problem  3.    Calculate  a  ration  of  corn  and  cowpea  seed  for  this  pig. 

Problem  4.  Calculate  a  ration  for  a  horse  at  heavy  work,  using  cow- 
pea  hay  and  corn. 

Problem  5.   What  would  the  ration  in  Problem  4  cost  at  local  prices  ? 

Problem  6.  Find  in  the  table  on  page  322  all  the  kinds  of  hay  that 
could  be  substituted  for  cowpea  hay,  that  is,  all  those  having  anutritive 
ratio  between  3  and  6. 

Problem  7.  Calculate  the  composition  of  the  following  Southern  ra- 
tion and  compare  it  with  standard  for  a  cow  giving  milk :  6  pounds 
cotton  seed,  5  pounds  corn  meal,  15  pounds  cowpea  hay. 

Problem  8.  Calculate  the  composition  and  compare  with  the  stan- 
dard a  ration  of  6  pounds  cotton  seed,  7  pounds  wheat  bran,  1 5  pounds 
mixed  grass  hay. 


Standard  Daily  Rations  needed  by  Different  Animals 
(For  Reference) 


Weight  of 

Digestible  matter 

« 

Needed  daily  by  — 

ANIMAL 

u 

V 

B 

Nutritive 

1 

1"^ 

ratio 

Lis. 

Lis. 

Lis. 

Lis. 

Lis. 

Cow  giving  22  lbs.   . 

milk  per  day  .     .     . 

1000 

29.0 

2.5 

13.0 

0.5 

I  to  5.7 

Horse  at  light  work  . 

1000 

20.0 

1-5 

9-5 

0.4 

I  to  7 

Horse  at  medium  work 

1000 

24.0 

2.0 

II.O 

0.6 

I  to  6.2 

Horse  at  heavy  work 

1000 

26.0 

2.5 

13-3 

0.8 

I  to  6 

Growing  swine      .     . 

100 

3-5 

0.5 

2.3 

O.I 

I  to  5 

Fattening  swine    .     . 

200 

6.0 

0.7 

4.1 

O.I 

I  to  6 

Fattening  cattle     .     . 

1000 

30.0 

2.5 

15.0 

0.5 

I  to  6.5 

Average  Digestible  Matter  in 

Feeding 

Stuffs 

DiGBSTIBLB   MA-rm  IM 

Fbbdinc  STvm 

D«Y  MATTBK 
IN  too  rOUMDS 

100  rOVMM 

NuTumvB 

Citfbo- 
hydfmte* 

Fm 

RATIO 

too  lis.  ef 

Lbs. 

Lht. 

Ui. 

IM. 

Corn  or  corn  meal    . 

89.4 

7.8 

66.7 

4.3 

9.8 

Corn  and  cob  meal  . 

84.9 

4-4 

f»X> 

2.9 

I5.I 

Oats 

89.0 

9.2 

47.3 

4.2 

6.2 

Wheat 

89.5 

10.2 

69.2 

i7 

7.2 

Wheat  bran     .     .     . 

88.1 

12.2 

39-2 

2.7 

3-7 

Wheat  shorts  .     .     . 

88.2 

12.2 

50.0 

3-8 

4-7 

Cotton  seed     .     .     . 

89.7 

12.5 

30.0 

'7-3 

5-5 

Cotton-seed  meal 

91.8 

37-2 

16.9 

12.2 

1.3 

Rice,  rough .... 

87.6 

4.8 

72.2 

0.3 

164 

Rice  polish  .... 

90.0 

9.0 

56.4 

6.5 

7^ 

Rice  bran     .... 

90-3 

5-3 

45.1 

7-3 

»3-5 

Kafir  corn   .... 

84.8 

7.8 

57« 

2.1 

8.1 

Peanut  meal     .     .     . 

893 

42.9 

22.8 

6.9 

0.9 

Cowpeas  (seed)    .     . 

85.2 

18.3 

54.2 

I.I 

3« 

Soy  beans  (seed) 

89.2 

29.6 

22.3 

144 

1.8 

Cowpea  hay     .     .     . 

893 

10.8 

384 

>-5 

3-9 

Soy-bean  hay  .     .     . 

88.7 

10.8 

38.7 

«-5 

3-9 

Red-clover  hay    .     . 

84.7 

6.8 

35-8 

1-7 

5.8 

Alfalfa  hay  .... 

91.6 

II.O 

396 

1.2 

3.8 

Crimson-clover  hay  . 

90.4 

10.5 

349 

1.2 

3.6 

Grass  hay  (mixed)  . 

87.1 

5-9 

40.9 

.1-2 

7.3 

Oat  hay 

91. 1 

4-3 

46.4 

«-5 

6.3 

Timothy  hay    .     .     . 

86.8 

2.8 

43-4 

1.4 

16.6 

Com  stover     .     .     . 

59-5 

1.7 

324 

0.7 

19-3 

Kafir<orn  stover  .     . 

86.5 

23 

44.8 

0.8 

300 

Cotton-seed  hulls 

88.9 

0.3 

33- « 

1.7 

133.0 

Com  silage .... 

20.9 

0.9 

"•3 

0.7 

14.3 

Cow's  milk  .... 

12.8 

3.6 

4-9 

3-7 

3-7 

Skimmed  milk  (grav- 

ity) 

9.6 

31 

4-7 

0.8 

3.1 

Linseed  meal  (new)  . 

89.9 

28.2 

40.1 

2.8 

1.7 

Pumpkins    .... 

9« 

I.O 

5.8 

0.3 

6.3 

Oat  straw    .... 

90.8 

0.8 

38.0 

0.5 

33^ 

Wheat  straw    .    .    . 

90.4 

1.6 

41.6 

0-7 

93-0 

3*2 


SECTION  LXL     THE  PRODUCTION  AND  CARE 
OF   MILK 

Cows  of  the  same  breed  differ  greatly  in  the  amount 
and  richness  of  their  milk.  The  most  accurate  way  to 
decide  which  are  the  best  among  a  number  of  cows  is  to 
weigh  the  milk  at  regular  intervals,  once  or  twice  a  month, 
and  then  to  test  its  richness.  By 
using  a  Babcock  milk-tester  (Fig.  209), 
it  is  possible  to  tell  just  how  much  fa{ 
or  butter-making  material  there  is  in  the 
milk  of  any  cow.  Dairymen  who  try 
this  plan  sometimes  find  that  half  the 
cows  in  their  herd  are  not  paying  for  pic   209. —  A  Small 

their  food.     By  selling  the  inferior  cows      Babcock  Milk-test- 

,  ER  AND  Outfit 

for  beef  and  keepmg  only  those  that 

make  a  large  yield  of  butter  fat,  a   dairyman  sometimes 

doubles  his  net  profits. 

Milking  time.  —  Avoid  exciting  a  cow  at  milking  time. 
Fear  and  excitement  check  the  formation  and  flow  of 
milk.  Be  regular  and  milk  at  the  same  time  every  day. 
Feed  at  regular  hours  also. 

Keeping  the  milk  pure.  —  Milk  is  formed  from  the  blood 
which  circulates  through  the  udder  in  exceedingly  small 
blood  vessels.  While  forming  in  the  udder,  milk  of  a 
healthy  cow  contains  no  germs.    But  as  soon  as  it  is  drawn, 

323 


324  AGRICULTURE 

germs  fall  into  it.  A  dirty  udder,  a  dusty  stable,  dirty 
hands,  and  poorly  cleaned  milk  vessels  are  the  most 
common  means  of  adding  unwelcome  germs  to  milk. 

Before  milking,  the  dust  and  loose  hairs  on  and  around 
the  udder  should  be  removed  by  wiping  with  a  damp 
cloth.  The  stables  must  be  kept  clean  and  well  littered 
so  that  the  cow's  udder  and  body  may  not  be  soiled.  To 
avoid  getting  dust  and  germs  in  the  milk,  it  is  better  to 
feed  hay  or  other  dusty  food  after  milking  or  else  a  long 
time  before. 

The  milk  pails,  strainers,  and  all  other  vessels  must  be 
kept  clean  by  careful  washing  and  the  use  of  scalding 
water  or  steam  after  each  milking.  Be  sure  to  clean 
thoroughly  the  seams  and  rough  places  in  metal  milk- 
vessels.  These  hiding  places  may  be  crowded  with  germs 
if  any  of  the  dried  milk  is  allowed  to  adhere.  Sunning 
helps  to  clean  milk-vessels,  for  sunshine  is  a  great  enemy 
of  germs.  Neither  milk  nor  empty  milk-vessels  should 
ever  be  left  in  a  room  where  there  is  sickness.  Germs  of 
human  diseases  sometimes  enter  milk  by  this  means  or  by 
the  use  of  impure  water  used  in  washing  the  milk-vessels. 
If  the  milk  pails  have  partially  covered  tops  and  are  held 
in  a  slanting  position,  much  of  the  germ-laden  dust  will  be 
excluded  (Fig.  210). 

Cooling.  —  Milk  or  cream  should  be  cooled  as  soon  as 
possible,  for  germs  do  not  multiply  so  rapidly  in  a  cold 
temperature  as  in  a  warm  one.  One  means  of  quickly  cool- 
ing milk  or  cream  consists  in  putting  it  in  tall  slender  cans 
and  placing  these  in  cold  water.  Because  these  cans  are 
deep,  this  method  is  called   the  deep-setting   system  of 


THE  PRODUCTION  AND  CARE  OF  MILK 


325 


raising  cream.  The  most  common  method  in  Southern 
homes  where  only  one  or  two  cows  are  kept  is  to  pour 
the  milk  as  soon  as  drawn  into  shallow  pans. 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  Let  pupils  test  with  blue  litmus  paper 
samples  of  buttermilk  and  whole  milk  of  various  ages  or  kept  12  to  30 
hours  at  different  temperatures.  If  any  dairyman  near  you  has  a  Bab- 
cock  milk-tester,  try  to  plan  a  trip  with  the  class  to  see  it  in  operation. 
Samples  of  first-  and  last-drawn  milk,  and  of  milk  from  several  cows, 
can  be  prepared  in  advance  for  testing.  If  a  very  small  amount  of 
formalin  or  other  disinfectant  is  added,  the  samples  can  be  kept  for  a 
number  of  days.  If  there  is  any  money  for  school  equipment,  consider 
the  purchase  of  a  Babcock  milk-tester,  costing  $4.00  or  more.  Write 
the  Agricultural  College  of  your  state,  asking  which  pattern  to  buy  and 
from  whom  to  order.  Farmers  will  be  pleased  to  have  pupils  test  their 
cows. 


^ 


r^ 


\ 


V    .i 


Fig.  210. — Modern  Milk.  Pails,  xu  kklp  oux  Glk.\is  and  Du^st 


SECTION    LXII.     MAKING   BUTTER 

The  fat  in  milk  is  in  the  form  of  very  small,  round  par- 
ticles, called  globules.  Since  fat  is  lighter  than  milk,  the 
fat  globules  rise  to  the  surface,  forming  the  cream.  They 
rise  more  completely  if  the  milk  is  cooled  promptly  after 
milking.  Hence,  milk  is  generally  promptly  poured  into 
shallow  pans,  or  quickly  cooled  in  deep  cans  placed  in 
cold  water.  But  any  method  of  removing  the  fat  globules 
that  depends  upon  their  rising  to  the  surface  leaves  many 
of  them  entangled  in  the  skimmed  milk. 
When  shallow  pans  are  used,  about  one 
fourth  of  the  fat  may  be  lost  in  the  skimmed 
milk.  However,  the  cream  separator  (Fig. 
211)  removes  nearly  all  of  the  fat.  It  does 
this  by  the  rapid  revolution  of  the  metal 
bowl  through  which  the  milk  is  passing. 
The  bowl  revolves  six  thousand  times  or 
more  per  minute.  The  rapid  motion  throws 
Fkj.  ait.  — ahavd  the  heavier  part  of  milk  to  the  outer 
Creau  Separator  g^gg  of  the  bowl,  from  which  it  runs  out 
as  skimmed  milk.  The  cream,  being  lighter,  collects 
nearer  the  center  of  the  bowl,  and  overflows. 

Ripening  cream  for  churning.  —  While  many  kinds  of 
germs  are  harmful  to  milk,  there  is  one  kind  of  germ 
which  the  dairyman  needs  in  milk  or  cream  intended  for 

326 


MAKING   BUTTER  327 

making  butter.  This  is  the  lactic  germ,  or  the  one  that 
produces  the  ordinary  souring  of  milk  or  cream.  When 
numbers  of  these  germs  get  into  milk  kept  at  a  mild 
temperature,  they  change  the  sugar  in  it  into  a  pleasant 
acid,  called  lactic  acid,  the  flavor  of  which  is  found  in 
buttermilk.  This  acid  changes  that  part  of  the  milk 
which  contains  nitrogen  into  the  somewhat  solid  curd, 
and  makes  it  easier  for  the  churn  to  separate  the  fat. 
Cream  is  soured  or  ripened  before  it  is  churned. 

If  the  milk  or  cream  is  kept  too  cold  before  churning, 
other  germs  that  can  endure  more  cold  increase  more 
rapidly  than  the  helpful  lactic  germs,  thus  giving  an  un- 
pleasant flavor  to  the  butter  and  buttermilk.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  cream  is  kept  very  warm,  souring  occurs  very 
quickly  and  the  butter  is  soft  and  inferior.  A  good  tem- 
perature at  which  to  ripen  or  sour  cream  at  home  is  60 
to  70  degrees  Fahrenheit.  This  is  a  little  cooler  than  the 
air  of  a  comfortably  heated  living  room  in  winter.  In 
some  dairies,  the  cream  is  cooled  to  about  50  degrees. 
Since  the  lactic  germs  multiply  slowly  in  cold  milk  or 
cream,  it  may  be  necessary  in  cold  weather  to  add  an 
extra  supply  of  these  germs.  The  addition  of  a  little 
well-flavored  buttermilk  from  a  previous  churning  is  one 
way  to  hasten  the  ripening  of  milk  or  cream  in  cold 
weather. 

The  flavor  of  butter  is  chiefly  due  to  the  kind  of  germs 
in  the  ripening  cream.  To  make  sure  that  every  lot  of 
butter  shall  have  a  good,  uniform  flavor,  some  dairymen 
add  a  prepared  starter,  containing  the  particular  germs  that 
will  produce  the  desired  flavor. 


328  AGRICULTURE 

Churning.  —  A  good  temperature  for  the  cream  in  the 
churn  is  about  60  degrees  Fahrenheit  if  the  cows  are  fresh 
in  milk  and  are  not  fed  on  cotton  seed  or  cotton-seed 
meal.  If  these  foods  are  fed,  raise  the  temperature  within 
the  churn  to  some  point  between  63  and  68  degrees. 
Much  warmer  cream  can  be  churned,  but  the  butter  is 
then  soft  and  mixed  with  the  curd  of  the  milk.  Such 
butter  sells  for  a  very  low  price  and  soon  becomes  rancid. 
Moreover,  if  the  cream  is  warm  when  churned,  much  of 
the  fat  is  left  in  the  buttermilk.  A  dairy  thermometer 
costs  little  and  often  saves  many  an  hour  of  work  and 
many  a  pound  of  butter. 

Sometimes,  when  butter  will  not  come,  it  is  because  the 
cream  is  not  sour  enough,  or  because  the  churn  is  too  full. 
The  best  churns  are  those  that  revolve,  and  these  should 
not  be  more  than  one-third  or  one-half  full.  Green  feed 
for  the  cows  makes  the  cream  easier  to  churn  and  gives 
to  the  butter  an  attractive  yellow  color.  Sometimes,  when 
the  butter  comes  but  will  not  gather,  churning  can  be 
hastened,  but  the  buttermilk  ruined,  by  adding  a  little  salt. 

Handling  the  butter. — The  churn  should  be  stopped 
when  the  grains  of  butter  are  about  as  large  as  kernels  of 
wheat.  Then  draw  off  most  of  the  buttermilk  and  add 
cold  water  to  harden  the  butter.  Later,  wash  the  grains  of 
butter  thoroughly  in  cold  water.  Add  fine  dairy  salt  while 
working  it  on  the  butter-worker.  It  is  generally  best  to 
work  it  twice.  When  coloring  is  added,  it  should  be 
placed  in  the  churn  before  churning  begins.  A  uniform 
color,  neat  prints,  and  careful  wrapping  in  special  oiled 
paper  greatly  increase  the  selling  price. 


MAKING   BUTTER  329 

Exercise.  —  Who  has  seen  and  can  describe  a  cream  separator? 
Obtain  two  small  clean  bottles  of  the  same  size  and  shape  and  fill  both 
with  milk  as  soon  as  it  comes  from  the  cow.  Shake  one  of  them  about 
every  half  hour.  Leave  the  other  perfectly  still.  On  which  does  the 
cream  rise  best  ?  Another  day  fill  one  of  the  these  same  bottles  with  • 
the  milk  first  drawn  from  the  udder  and  the  other  with  strippings. 
After  the  cream  rises,  try  to  estimate  how  much  more  cream  there  is  in 
strippings. 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  Ask  the  pupils  to  take  the  temperature  of 
the  well  or  spring  water  at  home  and  of  the  contents  of  the  churn.  Could 
a  can  of  milk  be  kept  advantageously  in  water  of  this  temperature? 
Would  such  water  chill  and  harden  butter?  Ask  for  experiences  in 
churning  when  the  butter  would  not  come.  What  were  the  condi- 
tions? 

Optional  Problems  in  Dairying.—  (i)  In  one  year  cow  A  gives 
4000  pounds  of  milk  and  cow  B  gives  5000  pounds ;  the  Babcock  test 
shows  that  A's  milk  contains  4.5  per  cent  of  butter  fat  and  B's  milk  3.5 
per  cent ;  how  many  pounds  of  butter  fat  are  produced  by  each  in  a 
year  ? 

(2)  Assuming  that  one  pound  of  butter  fat  is  mixed  with  enough 
water,  curd,  and  salt  to  make  ij  pounds  of  butter,  what  is  the  number 
of  pounds  of  butter  produced  annually  by  each  cow?  What  is  the 
value  of  the  yearly  butter  product  of  each  cow,  with  butter  at  25  cents 
per  pound  ? 

(3)  How  many  more  pounds  of  butter  fat  would  cow  A  produce  in  a 
year  (see  problem  i)  if  the  cream  from  her  milk  were  separated  in  a 
cream  separator  than  if  it  were  raised  in  shallow  pans,  assuming  that 
there  is  left  in  the  skim  milk  from  the  separator  ^^  of  the  fat  in  the 
whole  milk  and  in  the  skimmed  milk  ^  of  the  fat  that  was  present  in 
the  whole  milk? 

(4)  What  would  be  the  value  of  this  increased  production  of  butter 
fat  in  problem  3^  at  25  cents  per  pound  of  butter,  assuming  that  each 
pound  of  butter  fat  would  tiake  i^  pounds  of  butter  ? 

(5)  Use  the  answer  to  problem  4  to  determine  how  many  months  or 
years  it  would  require  for  the  extra  amount  01  butter  made  by  the  sepa- 
rator from  a  herd  of  6  cows  like  A  to  pay  for  a  small  hand-power 
separator  costing  $75.  Can  any  one  point  out  an  additional  saving  (in 
feeding  the  calves)  when  a  separator  is  used  ? 


SECTION   LXIII.    THE  CATTLE  TICK 

In  somewhat  the  same  way  that  the  mosquito  spreads 
malaria  among  mankind,  the  cattle  tick  spreads  a  very 
fatal  disease  among  cattle.  This  is  the  tick  fever,  which 
causes  more  deaths  and  other  losses  among  Southern  cattle 
than  all  other  diseases  combined.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  in  this  and  in  other  ways  the  cattle  tick  causes  a  loss 
every  year  of  more  than  $40,000,000  to  the  South.  The 
government  maintains  a  quarantine  line  to  prevent  the 
spread  of  ticks  and  tick  fever. 

The  cause  of  tick  fever  is  a  tiny  parasite,  or  harmful 
living  thing,  that  can  be  seen  only  by  the  use  of  a  good 
miscroscope.  It  destroys  the  red  blood-cells  of  the  dis- 
eased animals. 

In  the  blood  that  the  tick  sucks  from  Southern  or  other 
cattle  that  have  once  had  the  disease  are  the  parasites. 
The  mother  tick  conveys  these  to  her  eggs,  and  these  pass 
them  on  to  the  young  ticks.  When  these  latter  insert 
their  mouth-parts  into  a  cow  that  has  not  had  tick  fever, 
the  parasites  pass  from  the  tick  into  the  animal,  and  cause 
it  to  sicken  and  often  to  die.  Hence  cattle  brought  south 
from  north  of  the  quarantine  line  often  die  with  this  disease, 
which  is  carried  to  them  by  ticks.  Experiments  have  re- 
cently shown  that  the  cattle  tick  can  be  entirely  destroyed 
over  large  areas  of  country. 

The  life  of  a  tick.  —  To  learn  to   fight  any  pest,  first 

33«> 


THE   CATTLE   TICK  33 1 

learn  how  it  lives.  A  large  tick  on  a  cow  drops  to  the 
ground  when  too  full  of  blood  to  suck  more,  and  there  lays 
as  many  as  3000  eggs.  In  warm  weather  these  eggs  soon 
hatch  into  tiny  ticks,  each  about  the  size  of  a  chicken 
mite.  They  crawl  up  on  tall  grass  or  bushes,  waiting  for  a 
cow  to  rub  them  off.  Neither  old  nor  young  ticks  can  live 
on  anything  but  blood.  Hence,  if  no  animal  comes  along, 
the  young  ticks  starve.  But  they  do  not  starve  quickly. 
Without  food  they  may  live  as  long  as  three  months  in 
summer  and  much  longer  in  cool  weather. 

Destroying  ticks  on  cattle.  —  Ticks  are  killed  by  grease, 
kerosene,  crude  petroleum,  and  other  poisons.  These  sub- 
stances are  applied  to  cattle  either  by  hand,  by  spraying,  or 
by  dipping  the  cattle. 

Starving  the  ticks  in  fields,  pastures,  and  woodlands. — 
When  the  owner  has  cleared  his  cattle  of  ticks,  he  can  get 
entirely  and  permanently  rid  of  ticks  on  his  whole  farm. 
He  can  starve  the  ticks  in  his  fields,  pastures,  or  woodlands 
by  keeping  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep  out  of  them  for  a  time. 
The  time  to  starve  all  the  ticks  is  the  period  from  May  i  to 
about  September  10.  In  cool  weather  the  ticks  must  be 
starved  for  a  longer  period,  from  September  until  April. 

Land  is  generally  free  from  ticks  where  no  cattle  have 
been  during  the  months  of  hot  weather.  Thus  most  cul- 
tivated fields  are  free  from  ticks.  By  having  two  pastures, 
one  used  only  during  the  hot  season,  and  the  other  during 
the  other  part  of  the  year,  both  can  be  kept  free  from  the 
ticks.  The  cultivated  fields,  after  the  crops  are  harvested, 
may  be  used  as  the  cool-weather  pastures.  Of  course,  it 
is  necessary,  in  changing  the  cattle  from  one  pasture  to 


332 


AGRICULTURE 


another,  to  rid  them  of  ticks.  No  cattle  bearing  ticks 
should  be  brought  in  from  other  farms  without  first  clean- 
ing them. 


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corrow 


SUMMER  CROPS 

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Oiurlnjr  Bur.  An.  Ind..  U.  8.  Dept.  of  Arricutture 

Fio.  aia. — The  Cattle  Tick,  enlakced.  Male  on  left;  Young  Feuale 
ON  right;  also  one  Plan  of  cleaning  Cattle  and  Land  by  Rotation 
or  Pastokes 


SECTION    LXIV.     FARM    IMPLEMENTS   AND 
MACHINERY 

Machinery  now  does  much  of  the  work  on  the  farm 
once  performed  by  human  hands.  Especially  in  grain 
growing  the  work  has  been  lightened  and  the  cost  of 
production  greatly  decreased. 

Machinery  for  the  grain-grower.  —  The  seeds  and  fer- 
tilizers are  sown  with  a  grain  drill.  The  self-binder  cuts 
and  binds  as  much  in  a  day  as  many  men  with  cradles  could 
have  done  fifty  years  ago.  While  the  grain  cradle  is  still 
used  on  farms  where  only  a  few  acres  of  grain  are  grown, 
or  where  the  fields  are  too  rolling  for  the  use  of  labor- 
saving  machinery,  yet  the  cost  of  producing  grain  by  this 
system  is  greatly  increased. 

On  some  of  the  extensive  grain  fields  of  the  West  even 
a  self-binder  is  displaced,  and  its  work  is  done  by  still 
more  powerful  and  effective  machinery.  The  grain 
header,  drawn  by  steam  or  many  horses,  cuts  the  heads 
from  many  acres  in  a  day,  and  as  it  moves  along  threshes 
and  sacks  the  cut  grain. 

Haymaking  machinery.  —  In  hay  growing  also  inven- 
tion has  made  the  labor  much  less  burdensome  than  it 
was  in  earlier  years.  There  are  horse-rakes  for  collecting 
the  hay  into  windrows,  tedders  for  lifting  and  more  rapidly 
drying  it,  and  sweep  rakes  (Fig.  213),  drawn  or  pushed  by 

333 


334  '  AGRICULTURE 

horses,  for  collecting  hay  from  the  windrows  and  carrying 
it  short  distances  to  the  barn  or  stack.  These  sweep  rakes 
save  the  work  of  loading  a  wagon.  Where  the  distance  is 
greater,  so   that  hauling  on   wagons   becomes  necessary, 


Fig.  213.  —  Mai  :;■.::.  :•.   .    11  \-. 

Sweep  rake  and  stacker. 

there  are  hay  loaders  which  save  pitching  the  hay.- 
These  are  hitched  behind  the  wagon,  and  as  the  wagon 
and  loader  arc  drawn  along,  the  hay  is  elevated  from  the 
windrow  to  the  wagon. 

At  the  bam  or  stack  one  or  two  horses,  hitched  to  a 
hay  carrier,  may  lift  the  hay  from  the  wagon  to  its  place  in 
the  barn.  Where  sweep  rakes  arc  used  to  bring  the  hay 
to  the  stack,  these  deliver  their  burdens  to  a  hay  stacker 
(Fig.  213).  Then  the  stacker,  by  means  of  horse  power, 
raises  the  load  to  its  position  on  the  stack.  Thus  no 
lifting  by  human  force  need  be  done  until  the  hay  is  on 
the  stack. 

Machinery  for  com,   sugar  cane,  and   rice.  —  The  corn 


FARM   IMPLEMENTS   AND   MACHINERY  335 

grower,  too,  has  profited  by  the  mechanic's  art.  He  uses 
com  harvesters  to  cut  and  to  tie  his  corn,  shredders  to  sepa- 
rate the  ears  from  the  stalks,  to  remove  the  shucks,  and  to 
tear  the  forage  into  bits  suitable  for  most  convenient  use 


Fig.  214. — -Corn  Harvester,  with  Bundle-Carrier  Attachment 

as  food  or  bedding.  Even  a  bundle-carrying  corn  har- 
vester, or  shocking  machine  (Fig.  214),  and  a  machine  for 
pulling  the  ears,  have  been  invented. 

The  rice-grower  uses  the  grain-drill,  the  self-binder,  and 
other  machinery  like  that  used  in  grain-farming.  The 
sugar-planter  is  testing  cane  loaders,  and  cane  harvesters 
are  engaging  the  inventor's  attention. 

Labor-saving  implements  on  cotton  farms. — The  cotton 


336  AGRICULTURE 

farmer  has  made  less  general  use  of  labor-saving  machin> 
cry  than  the  grain  and  hay-grower.  It  is  possible  to  grow 
cotton  profitably  with  a  few  very  inexpensive  implements, 
a!nd  hence  a  beginning  may  be  made  in  cotton  culture  by 
one  who  has  very  little  capital.  But  here,  too,  it  pays  to 
utilize  labor-saving  machinery  and  the  implements  which 
make  possible  the  most  thorough  preparation  and  cultiva- 


Fio.  ai5. — Showing  the  Wrong  Way  to  store  Cotton  in  Winter 

tion.  Most  cotton  farms  on  which  several  horses  or  mules 
are  worked  need  a  disk  plow,  large  "  turning  plows,"  a 
spike-tooth  harrow  (and  often  others),  a  weeder,  and  the 
best  cultivators.  Riding  on  one  of  these  labor-saving 
implements,  one  intelligent  man  often  does  well  the  work 
that  two  or  more  men  would  do  while  walking  behind 
smaller  implements. 

The  invention  of  the  cotton  gin  was  the  greatest  factor 
in  building  up  the  cotton  industry  of  the  South.  Likewise 
a  great  cheapening  of  the  cost  of  producing  cotton  will 


FARM    IMPLEMENTS   AND   MACHINERY  337 

result  when  a  cheap,  simple,  and  durable  cotton-picker 
shall  be  on  the  market.  Recent  successful  public  tests 
of  at  least  two  very  different  cotton-pickers  point  to  the 
day  of   cotton-picking   by  machinery. 

Farm  buildings.  —  Not  only  are  implements  needed  in 
farming,  but  also  convenient  farm  buildings  for  sheltering 
implements,  live-stock,  and  crops.  A  building  too  often 
absent  from  a  cotton  farm  is  a  shed  under  which  to  store 
bales  of  cotton.  If  cotton  is  left  exposed  in  winter,  as  in 
Fig.  215,  there  is  a  considerable  loss  in  the  quality  and  price 
of  the  lint. 

Exercise.  —  Write  in  your  notebook  a  list  of  tlie  kinds  of  plows  you 
have  seen.  How  many  kinds  of  harrows  have  you  seen?  Ask  your 
parents  to  tell  you  some  of  the  farm  implements  that  they  consider 
most  useful.  Write  this  list  in  your  notebook  and  also  what  each  is 
used  for.  What  farm  or  household  work  needs  some  new  inventions 
to  make  it  hghter? 

Note  to  the  Teacher.  —  Pictures  of  farm  implements  shown 
during  the  recitation  will  interest  the  class.  By  writing  a  postal  to 
some  hardware  companies  or  to  manufacturers  of  farm  implements,  you 
will  often  find  them  willing  to  send  free  catalogues  containing  pictures 
of  farm  machinery.  Addresses  of  manufacturers  can  be  obtained  frpm 
the  advertising  columns  of  almost  any  agricultural  paper,  an  old  copy 
of  which  some  pupil  can  probably  bring  you  from  home. 


SECTION   LXV.     EARTH   ROADS 

Good  roads  make  country  life  more  attractive.  They  also 
make  possible  in  the  country  good  schools,  churches,  and 
social  gatherings.  They  soon  pay  for  their  cost  in  the 
labor  of  men  and  teams  saved  by  hauling  with  a  few  loads 
over  good  roads  the  same  weight  that  requires  many  loads 
over  bad  roads.  Good  roads  pay,  too,  because  they  save 
wear  and  tear  on  teams  and  vehicles.  Improving  a  road 
increases  the  value  of  the  land  near  it. 

Location  of  roads.  — A  road  is  no  better  than  its  worst 
part.  The  load  hauled  is  as  large  as  the  team  can  pull  up 
the  steepest  hill  or  most  boggy  part  of  the  road.  Hence, 
the  first  work  in  improving  a  road  ought  to  be  to  improve 
the  worst  places.  It  pays  to  change  the  location  of  a  road 
to  avoid  the  worst  hills.  Roads  ought  not  to  go  straight 
up  steep  hills,  but  should  curve  arriund  their  sides. 

The  best  roads  are  made  of  a  thick  layer  of  broken  stone 
or  gravel.  Stone  roads  cost  several  thousand  dollars  for 
each  mile,  and  an  engineer  is  needed  to  plan  or  build  them. 
At  slight  expense  earth  roads  can  be  much  improved  by 
proper  grading,  rounding,  and  draining. 

Avoid  a  steep  rise  or  grade.  —  A  road  ought  to  be  as 
nearly  level  as  possible.  The  grade  or  slope  of  an  earth 
road  ought  not  to  be  more  than  six  feet  rise  in  each  hun- 
dred feet  of  length,  though  steeper  grades  are  sometimes 
necessary.     The  load  that  one  horse  can  pull  on  a  level 

33> 


EARTH   ROADS 


339 


requires  four  horses  to  pull  up  a  grade  with  a  rise  of  ten 
feet  in  each  hundred  feet. 

Keep  the  center  highest.  —  The  center  of  a  road  should 
be  arched  so  as  to  be  at  least  five  to  eight  inches  above 
the  sides.  Whenever  ruts  or  depressions  remain  long  un- 
filled, mud-holes  or  washes  occur. 


Made  from  a  iO'to/2  '^. 

Fig.  2 1 6. — A  Split-log  Road  Drag 

A  cheap  road  drag.  —  Ruts  should  be  filled  as  soon  as 
formed.  This  can  be  done  by  running  a  split-log  drag 
along  one  side  of  the  road  and  back  on  the  other  side. 
The  drag  shown  (Fig.  216)  is  made  from  a  split  log  and 
costs  very  little. 

A  little  work  in  filling  ruts  as  soon  as  they  form  is 
worth  much  more  than  the  same  amount  of  work  after  the 
ruts  have  caused  washes  in  the  road.  The  best  way  to 
keep  earth  roads  good  is  not  by  having  many  men  to  work 
them  once  or  twice  a  year,  but  by  having  a  few  men,  with 
team  and  split-log  drag,  ready  to  fill  the  ruts  as  soon  as 
they  form.  This  use  of  the  drag  arches  the  center,  fills 
ruts  and  low  places,  and  hastens  drying.  There  should  be 
a  ditch  on  each  side  to  carry  off  the  water  and  to  keep  the 
road-bed  dry. 


340 


AGRICULTURE 


Sand-clay  roads.  —  Deep  sand-beds  make  the  roads  bad 
in  many  parts  of  the  South.  Some  counties  have  changed 
these  sand-beds  into  good  firm  roads  by  hauling  clay  and 
thoroughly  mixing  it  with  the  upper  six  inches  of  sand. 
The  clay  and  sand  are  mixed  while  wet  by  means  of  plows 
and  harrows,  or  by  the  wheels  of  vehicles.  Then  the  road 
is  kept  constantly  rounded,  so  that  water  does  not  stand 
on  it 

Exercise.  —  Are  sandy  roads  best  when  dry  or  wet  ?  Are  clay 
roads  best  when  dry  or  wet  ?  Watch  the  teams  struggle  up  some  steep 
hill  and  then  consider  whether  the  road  could  easily  be  changed  to 
avoid  that  hill  or  to  climb  it  more  gradually. 


Inartny  of  V.  9.  Dcpt.  of  Aglte«ltai« 

Fio.  8x7.  —  Junction  of  Two  Grav'el  Roads  in  Tennbsssb 
Showing  the  size  of  bads  aotnctiincs  hauled  over  the  best  roads. 


APPENDIX 

I.     FERTILIZER   EQUIVALENTS 

The  nitrogen  in  is  about  the  same  as  in 

I  pound  nitrate  of  soda         =  7.\  pounds  cotton-seed  meal. 
I  pound  cotton-seed  meal      =  i\  pounds  cotton  seed. 
I  pound  sulfate  of  ammonia  =  \\  pounds  nitrate  of  soda. 
I  pound  sulfate  of  ammonia  =  3  pounds  cotton-seed  meal. 
I  pound  (h.g.)  dried  blood  =15  pounds  cotton-seed  meal. 

TJie  potash  in  is  about  the  same  as  in 

I  pound  muriate  of  potash     =  4  pounds  kainit. 
I  pound  sulfate  of  potash       =  4  pounds  kainit. 

Substitutions  may  be  made  in  the  following  formulas,  or  in  any 
others,  on  the  basis  of  the  figures  above. 

II.     SOME  FERTILIZER   FORMULAS 

As  pointed  out  in  the  text,  the  only  positive  means  of  finding  the 
best  fertilizer  for  a  certain  crop  on  a  given  soil  is  by  making  a  field 
test  of  fertilizers.  Until  such  a  test  is  made,  the  following  formulas  may 
be  used  as  suggestive  and  general,  rather  than  as  suiting  every  soil. 
Many  other  formulas  having  the  same  composition  can  be  calculated 
as  directed  in  Section  XVIII.  Acid  phosphate  is  assumed  below  to 
contain  14  per  cent  of  available  phosphoric  acid. 

1.  For  cotton  on  poor  clay  and  land,  where  cotton-rust  does  not 

occur : — 

Acid  phosphate,  150  to  300  pounds  per  acre. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  1 50  to  300  pounds  per  acre. 

2.  For  cotton  on  fair  or  good  clay  land,  where  cotton-rust  does  not 

occur : — 

Acid  phosphate,  200  to  300  pounds  per  acre. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  100  to  150  pounds  per  acre. 


U  AGRICULTURE 

3.  For  cotton  on  poor,  unimproved,  sandy  soil,  where  cotton-rust 

occurs: — 

Acid  phosphate,  1 50  to  300  pounds  per  acre. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  150  to  300  pounds  per  acre. 
Kainit,  75  to  too  pounds  per  acre. 

4.  For  cotton  on  sandy  soil  somewhat  improved  by  previous  crops  of 

cowpeas,  or  other  legumes,  but  on  which  cotton-rust  occurs :  — 
Acid  phosphate,  150  to  300  pounds  per  acre. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  up  to  150  pounds  per  acre. 
Kainit,  75  to  100  pounds  per  acre,  or 

5.  Acid  phosphate,  150  to  300  pounds  per  acre. 
Nitrate  of  soda,  50  pounds  per  acre. 
Kainit,  75  to  100  pounds  per  acre. 

6.  For  com  on  clay  and  loam  soils  :  — 

Acid  phosphate,  100  to  200  pounds  per  acre. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  100  to  200  pounds  per  acre. 

7.  For  corn  on  very  poor,  sandy  soils :  — 

Acid  phosphate,  1 50  to  200  |X)unds  per  acre. 
Cotton-s&ed  meal,  1 50  to  200  pounds  per  acre. 
Kainit,  75  pounds  per  acre. 

8.  For  oats  and  wheat  on  poor  soils  :  — 

Acid  phosphate  (when  seed  are  sown),  200  pounds  per  acre. 
Nitrate  of  soda  (after  the  leaves  are  three  inches  long), 
100  pounds  per  acre. 

9.  For  cowpeas,  soy  beans,  velvet  beans,  alfalfa,  vetch,  or  clovers :  — 

Acid  phosphate,  200  to  400  pounds  per  acre. 

(If  the  soil  is  very  sandy  and  poor,  add  100  to  200  pounds 
kainit,  or  25  to  50  pounds  muriate  of  potash.) 

10.  For  tobacco  or  vegetables :  — 

Acid  phosphate,  200  to  300  pounds  per  acre. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  200  to  300  pounds  per  acre. 
Nitrate  of  soda,  50  to  75  pounds  per  acre. 
High-grade  sulfate  of  potash,  50  to  75  pounds  per  acre. 

1 1 .  For  vegetables  :  — 

Acid  phosphate,  300  to  600  pounds  per  acre. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  1 50  to  300  pounds  per  acre. 
Nitrate  of  soda,  75  to  225  pounds  p>er  acre. 
Muriate  of  potash,  50  to  1 50  pounds  per  acre. 


APPENDIX  iii 

III.     TO   DESTROY  INSECTS 
I.     BrsuLFiD  OF  Carbon 
For  weevils  and  other  insects  in  corn,  cowpeas,  or  other  grain  or  seed  stored  in 
tight  cribs  or  bins. 

About  one  teaspoonful  of  liquid  to  each  one  or  two  cubic  feet  of 
space ;  pour  the  liquid  into  an  open  shallow  can  placed  on  top  of  the 
grain ;  cover  the  grain  with  cloth.  The  liquid  evaporates  and  the  heavy 
fumes  settle  downward.  The  fumes  are  very  inflammable  ;  hence,  keep 
all  lights  and  all  smokers  away  until  the  odor  has  disappeared. 

2.    Paris  Green 

For  biting  insects,  including  the  potato  beetle,  and  other  insects  eating  the 
leaves  of  field  crops,  vegetables,  or  fruits. 

Dust  on  as  a  dry  poivder  Spray  with 

Paris  green,  i  pound.  Paris  green,  \  pound. 

Slacked  lime  or  flour,  lo  to  40  pounds.  Lime,  \  pound. 

Water,  about  50  gallons. 

3.  Kerosene  Emulsion 

For  soft-bodied,  sucking  insects,  as  scale,  plant-lice,  etc. 
Hard  soap  (in  fine  shavings),  \  pound. 
Kerosene,  2  gallons. 

Water  (soft  or  rain  water),      i  gallon. 

Dissolve  the  shavings  of  soap  in  the  water  while  it  boils.  Remove 
the  water  from  the  fire ;  add  the  kerosene,  and  churn  the  mixture  by 
pumping  it  through  a  spraying  pump  until  a  creamy  liquid,  without  free 
oil,  is  formed.  This  mixture  contains  66  per  cent  of  kerosene.  Dilute 
it  with  from  6  to  10  gallons  of  water  for  scale  insects,  and  with  10  to 
20  gallons  for  softer  insects. 

4.  Lime-sulfur  Wash 

For  scale  insects,  applied  while  there  are  no  leaves  on  the  trees. 
15  pounds  flowers  of  sulfur. 
20  pounds  of  unslaked  lime. 
50  gallons  of  water. 

(15  pounds  of  salt  is  sometimes  added.) 
Mix  the  sulfur  with  a  very  small  amount  of  water.     Slack  the  lime  in 
5  to  10  gallons  of  hot  water ;  add  the  sulfur;  dilute  to  25  gallons ;  boil 


hr  AGRICULTURE 

for  45  minutes.    Then  dilute  with  hot  water  to  50  gallons  and  appi]; 
It  while  hot. 

IV.   TO  PREVENT  OR   DECREASE  DISEASES  OF  PLANTS 

I.   Bordeaux  Mixture 

Bluestone  (copper  sulfate),  5  pounds. 
Best  unslacked  lime,  about  5  pounds. 
Water,  50  gallons. 

Slack  the  lime  with  enough  water  to  make  a  creamy  wash.  Add  the 
lime  and  the  bluestone  to  separate  lots  of  water.  Dilute  each  as  much 
as  convenient  before  pouring  the  two  liquids  together.  Strain  through 
a  coarse  cloth  before  using.  Consult  your  exp>eriment  station  regarding 
further  details  about  mixing  and  testing  Bordeaux  mixture,  etc.  When 
applied  to  the  foliage  of  peaches,  plums,  or  cherries,  double  the  amount 
of  water  mentioned  above. 

Apply  Bordeaux  mixture  in  a  fine  spray.  It  is  used  to  prevent  or 
decrease  molds  and  most  fungi  attacking  fruit  trees  and  vegetables. 
Paris  green  can  be  added  just  before  using  the  mixture,  \  pound  of  Paris 
green  to  50  gallons,  thus  destroying  both  fungi  and  leaf-eating  insects 
at  the  same  time. 

2.   Formalin 

To  prevent  oat  smut,  concealed  smut  of  wheat,  scab  and  other  diseases  of  Irish 
potatoes. 

For  wheat  or  oats,  pour  one  ounce  of  formalin  into  three  gallons  of 
water.  Dip  or  thoroughly  moisten  the  seed-grain,  and  leave  it  moist 
and  covered  for  two  hours.  Then  dry  the  grain,  and  sow  it  before  it 
comes  in  contact  with  more  smut  germs. 

To  prevent  scab,  soak  the  seed-potatoes  for  two  hours  in  a  solution 
of  I  ounce  of  formalin  in  2  gallons  of  water. 

V.  TO   MEASURE  GRAIN   APPROXIMATELY 

Multiply  the  average  depth  by  the  average  width,  and  the  product 
by  the  average  length  of  the  pile,  crib,  or  bin.  To  get  the  number 
of  bushels  of  shelled  grain,  divide  this  figure  (number  of  cubic  feet)  by 
ij;  to  find  the  number  of  "bushels"  of  shucked  ear  com,  divide  by 
2} ;  to  find  the  numbei  of  "  bushels "  of  unshucked  ear  corn,  divide 
by  4 


APPENDIX 


VI.  DIMENSIONS  OF  ONE  ACRE 
4840  square  yards,  or  43,560  square  feet. 
To  find  the  length  or  width  of  an  acre  when  the  other  dimension  is 

given,  divide  43,560  square  feet  by  the  length  or  width  in  feet,  or  divide 

4840  square  yards  by  the  length  or  width  in  yards. 

VII.   STATE   AGRICULTURAL   EXPERIMENT   STATIONS 


Alabama :  — 

College  Station,  Auburn. 

Canebrake  Station,  Uniontown. 

Tuskegee  Station,  Tuskegee. 
Arizona,  Tucson. 
Arkansas,  Fayetteville. 
California,  Berkeley. 
Colorado,  Fort  Collins. 
Connecticut :  — 

State  Station,  New  Haven. 

Storrs  Station,  Storrs. 
Delaware,  Newark. 
Florida,  Gainesville. 
Georgia,  Experirnent. 
Idaho,  Moscow. 
Illinois,  Urbana. 
Indiana,  Lafayette. 
Iowa,  Antes. 
Kansas,  Manhattan. 
Kentucky,  Lexington. 
Louisiana :  — 

State  Station,  Baton  Rouge. 

Sugar   Station,   Audubon   Park, 
NO. 

North    Louisiana 
houn. 
Maine,  Orono. 
Maryland,  College  Park. 
Massachusetts,  Amherst. 
Michigan,  East  Lansing. 
Minnesota,  St.  Anthony  Park. 
Mississippi,  Agricultural  College. 


Missouri :  — 

College  Station,  Columbia. 

Fruit  Station,  Mountain  Grove. 
Montana,  Bozeman. 
Nebraska,  Lincoln. 
Nevada,  Reno. 
New  Hampshire,  Durham. 
New  Jersey,  New  Brunswick. 
New  Mexico,  Agricultural  College. 
New  York :  — 

State  Station,  Geneva. 

Cornell  Station,  Ithaca. 
North  Carolina :  — 

College  Station,  West  Raleigh. 

State  Station,  Raleigh. 
North  Dakota,  Agricultural  College. 
Ohio,  Wooster. 
Oklahoma,  Stillwater. 
Oregon,  Corvallis. 
Pennsylvania,  State  College. 
Rhode  Island,  Kingston. 
South  Carolina,  Clemson  College. 
South  Dakota,  Brookings. 
Tennessee,  Knoxville. 
Station,    Cal-   Texas,  College  Station. 
Utah,  Logan. 
Vermont,  Burlington. 
Virginia,  Blacksburg. 
Washington,  Pullman. 
West  Virginia,  Morgantown. 
Wisconsin,  Madison. 
Wyoming,  Laramie. 


vi  AGRICULTURE 

VIII.   SCHOOL  GARDENS 

Below  are  given  simple  plans  for  planting  inexpensively  the  individ- 
ual plot  or  bed  assigned  to  each  pupil.  A  length  of  12  feet  and  a  width 
of  5  feet  are  convenient  dimensions  to  accommodate  6  rows  across  each 
bed.  Select  and  modify  as  convenient  that  one  of  the  suggested  plans 
that  most  nearly  corres|X)nds  to  the  time  when  the  planting  can  be  done 
most  conveniently.  The  plan  for  planting  in  the  fall,  and  the  one  for 
planting  in  April  or  May,  can  be  conducted  on  the  same  bed. 

It  is  better  to  have  two  or  more  plans  or  sets  of  seed,  so  as  to  give 
each  pupil  some  choice,  and  so  as  to  increase  the  variety  of  plants  under 
observation.  In  addition  to  small,  individual  beds,  there  should  be  rows 
or  plots  of  the  common  field-crops  of  the  locality,  which  require  more 
room  than  can  well  be  spared  for  them  in  the  individual  beds.  These 
rows  or  plots  should  be  considered  the  projjerty  of  the  whole  school* 
and  observed,  cultivated,  and  protected  by  all. 

Write  to  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.C., 
for  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  218,  on  "School  Gardens."  As  subjects  for 
compositions,  drawing  lessons,  etc.,  make  frequent  use  of  the  school 
garden. 


APPENDIX 
Rows  of 


VU 


Cotton 


Corn 


Cowpeas,  etc. 


4-ft.  Walk 


Plant  in  Fall 


Oats 


Wheat  or  Rye 


Hairy  Vetch 


Strawberries 


Crimson  Clover 
or  Vetch 


Kale 


-5  ft. 


3  ft. 
Walk 


Feb.' — Mar. 


Turnips 


Petunias 


Onions  and 
Potatoes 


Strawberries 


Radishes  or 
Beets 


Oats 


■5  ft. — 


3  ft. 
Walk 


Apr. — May 


Beans 


Okra 


Zinnias 


[Strawberries] 


Sweet 
Potatoes 


Running 
Peanuts 


■-5  ft.--- 


INDEX 


A  list  giving  definitions  of  words  is  not  needed  in  this  book.  As  few  unusual 
words  as  possible  have  been  employed,  and  these  have  been  explained  or  defined 
when  first  used.  The  index  will  enable  the  pupil  to  turn  to  the  definition  of  tech- 
nical words. 


Aberdeen-Angus  breed,  293. 

Acid  phosphate,  100. 

Acid  soils,  112,  113. 

Adult  insect,  251. 

Agriculture,  definition  of,  4;  reasons  for 
studying,  4. 

Air,  24,  34,  54. 

Air-spaces  in  soil,  68. 

Alfalfa,  63,  114;  comp)C)sition  of,  322; 
culture,  176;  dodder  on,  177;  in- 
oculation, 172. 

American  saddle  horse,  288. 

American  trotter,  288. 

Ammonia,  98. 

Andalusian  fowls,  310. 

Andrews,  Miss  F.  E.,  192. 

Antennae  of  insects,  247. 

Anther,  13. 

Apples,  9,  17,  39,  215;  diseases  of, 
230. 

Apple  worm,  258. 

Ash,  314. 

Asparagus,  189. 

Available  plant  food,  56. 

Babcock  milk-tester,  323. 
"Bachelor's  buttons,"  195. 
Bark,  42. 

Barley,  23,  137,  138. 
Bean  family,  10. 
Beans,  24,  187. 
"Bear's  grass,"  195. 
Beef  cattle,  290. 
Bees,  15,  277. 
Beets,  114,  187,  189. 


Berkshire  hogs,  304. 

Bermuda  grass,  82,  180,  183,  193. 

Biennials,  38. 

Bitterweed,  182. 

Blackberry,  ro. 

Blue  grass,  178. 

Bluestone,  227,  iv. 

Boll  weevil,  262,  264. 

Bordeaux  mixture,  227,  iv. 

Bracts,  9. 

Brahmas,  313. 

Breed,  definition  of,  281. 

Breeding  corn,  46. 

Bridal  wreath,  195. 

Budding,  39,  41,  43,  44. 

Buds,  propagation  by,  38. 

Bugs,  true,  250. 

Bulbs,  197,  198. 

Bur  clover,  77,  180. 

Butter  flavor,  327. 

Butterfly,  251,  254. 

Butter  making,  326, 

Cabbages,  114,  188. 
Calculation  of  fertihzer  formulas,  loa. 
California  poppy,  199. 
Canna,  199. 
Capillary  moisture,  65. 
Carbon  dioxid,  35. 
Carbon  in  air,  33. 
Castor  bean,  20. 
Catalpa  tree,  212. 
Caterpillars,  250,  251. 
Cattle,  beef,  290;  dairy,  295;  tick,  330; 
tick  fever  of,  330. 


INDEX 


Cedar  tree,  tit. 

Ceil,  39. 

Chrtnkal  fertilizers,  103. 

Chester  White  hof{s,  305. 

Chickens,  breeds  and  varieties,  310. 

ChinalR'rry  trees,  au. 

Chinch-bug,  357. 

Churning,  328. 

Chr}-salis,  350. 

Chrysanthctnunu,  195,  199. 

Cion,  41. 

Clasps  on  leaves  of  grains,  137. 

Clay,  size  of  grains,  59. 

Climate,  effect  on  carliness,  49. 

Clover,  crimson,  lao,  175,  322;  red, 
38,  63,  114,  1 20,  170,  177,  3aa; 
white,  19a. 

Clovers,  10,  87,  90. 

Clydesdale  horses,  a86. 

Coach  horses,  387. 

Cochin,  313. 

Cocoons,  asa. 

Codling-moth,  358. 

Coldframe,  187. 

Commercial  fertilizers,  98. 

Composition  of  fertilizers,  106. 

Compost,  95,  115. 

Copper  sulphate,  iv. 

Com,  ta,  ai,  38,  46,  ir9,  lai,  133,  las; 
composition  of,  3aa;  crossing,  133, 
I  as;  culture  of,  ia6;  fertilizers  for, 
137;  germination  test,  134;  har- 
vesting machinery,  335 ;  judging  1 29 ; 
races  of,  133;  score-card,  131;  selec- 
tion of,  46;  show,  13s;  silage,  33a; 
stover,  333. 

Corolla,  8. 

Cosmos,  196. 

Cotton,  33,  61,  113,  119,  131, 144,  ai7; 
black  rust  of,  343;  bloom,  9;  boll 
rot,    343;     boll    weevil,    364;     boll 

■  worm,  361;  breeding,  149;  cultiva- 
tion of,  151;  diseases  of,  338;  hasten- 
ing maturity  of,  370;  fertilizer  for, 
153;  leaf  worm,  363;  long -staple, 
146;  machinery  for,  336;  pickers, 
337;  plant-food  removed  in,  84; 
root  rot  of,  340;  Sea  Island,  146; 
short -staple,  147;  varieties  of,  147; 
wilt,  338. 


Cotton  seed,  106;  composition  of,  333; 

treatment  of,  1 53 ;  hulls,  333 ;  cotton- 

secil  meal,  98,  106,  333. 
Cottonwood  trees,  313. 
Cow,  parts  of,  398. 
Cowpeas,  10,  23,  90,  113,  118,  lai,  17a, 

174.  217,  3aa. 
Crab  grass,   183,   11,  183;  composition 

of,  333. 
Cream,  ripening,  336. 
Cream  separator,  336. 
Crops,  suiting  fertilizer  to,  109. 
Crosby's  exercises,  6,  31,  45,  69. 
Crossing  plants,  50. 
Cross-pollination,  15,  53. 
Cultivation  of  soils,  70. 
Curculio,  360. 
Cuttings,  40,  198. 

Daffodils,  195. 

Dairy  cattle,  395. 

Diseases  of  plants,  118;   causes  of,  335. 

Ditches,  79,  80,  81. 

Docks,  183. 

Dogwood,  X. 

Dorset  sheep,  301. 

Draft  horses,  384. 

Drainage,  74,  84. 

Duggar,  Dr.  B.  M.,  335. 

Duroc-Jersey  hogs,  304. 

Earth  roads,  338. 

Elements,  chemical,  33. 

Elm,  309,  a  10. 

Evaporator,  for  syrup  making,  160. 

Families  of  plants,  10. 

Farm  implements,  333. 

Fat,  316. 

Fattening  animals,  315. 

Fewling  animals,  principles  of,  315. 

Feeding  stuffs,  composition  of,  333. 

Fertilizer,  agricultural  value  of,  109; 
amount  of,  108;  commercial  value 
of,  103;  experiments  with,  no; 
fillers  in,  106;  for  fruit  trees,  si 6; 
formulas,  to  calculate,  loa;  for 
strawberries,  319;  for  sugar  rane, 
158;  for  sweet  potatoes,  163;  home 
mixing    of,    105;    commercial,    97; 


INDEX 


XI 


not  mixing  well,  iii;  problems,  107; 
requirements,  of  soils,  no. 

Fertilizing  by  feeding,  93. 

Figs,  propagation  of,  40. 

Fire,  83. 

Flag,  195. 

Floats,  100. 

Florida  phosphate,  100. 

Flower  garden,  planning  the,  192. 

Flower,  parts  of,  7. 

Food,  stored  in  seed,  21,  24;  uses  made 
of,  316. 

Forests,  86,  203;  fires,  204;   trees,  203. 

Formalin,  233,  iv. 

Four  o' clocks,  195. 

Foxtail,  182. 

Fruit  growing,  essentials  for,  216. 

Fruits,  orchard,  39,  215. 

Fruit  trees,  fertilizers  for,  216;  prun- 
ing, 221. 

Fungi,  225. 

Germ  enemies  in  the  soil,  245 
Germs  in  milk,  326. 
Germs,  nitrogen-fixing,  89. 
Germination  of  seeds,  23,  24,  26. 
Grade,  definition  of,  281. 
Grafting,  41,  42;   wax,  45. 
Grain  header,  333. 
Grapes,  18,  40,  215,  224. 
Grasses  for  hay  and  pasture,  176. 
Grass  family,  11. 
Grass  hay,  322. 
Grit  for  poultry,  308. 
Grubs,  250. 
Guard  cells,  35. 
Guernsey  breed,  297. 
Gum,  208,  210. 

Hackberry,  209. 

Hamburgs,  310. 

Hay  carrier,  334. 

Hay  loaders,  334. 

Hay-making  machinery,  334. 

Hay  stacker,  334. 

Hemp,  20. 

Hereford  breed,  293. 

Hessian  fly,  257. 

Hilly  land,  63. 

Hinds,  Dr.  W.  E.,  246. 


Hog  cholera,  303. 
Hogs,  303;  judging,  305. 
Hollyhocks,  '201. 
Holstein-Friesian  breed,  298. 
Honeybee,  277. 
Honey-producing  plants,  280. 
Horses,  284. 
Host  plant,  90. 
Hotbed,  187. 
Humus,  56,  86. 
Hyacinths,  195. 
Hydrometer,  Baum6,  160 

Improvement  of  plants,  46,  48. 
Inoculation  of  legumes,  169,  171. 
Insects,  118,  246. 
Insects    and    health,    372;    beneficial, 

254;   biting,  253;   changes  in,   250; 

definition  of,  246;  feeding  habits  of, 

253;  growth  in,  249;  parts  of,  247; 

stages  of,  249;  sucking,  254. 
Iris,  195. 

Irish  potatoes,  187. 
Iodine  test  for  starch,  37, 

Japan  clover,  178,  180. 

Japan  quince,  195. 

Jersey  breed,  296. 

Johnson  grass,  63,  178,  182,  184. 

Kafir,  181;  composition  of,  322;  stover. 

322. 
Kainit,  loi,  106. 

Ladybirds,  254. 

Langshan,  313. 

Larkspurs,  195. 

Larva,  250. 

Leaching,  82. 

Leaves,  31,  35. 

Leghorn  breed,  310. 

Legumes,  87,  91.  92.  169. 

Lettuce,  189. 

Level,  drainage,  77,  81. 

Level  lands,  63. 

Lichens,  55. 

Light  for  plants,  36. 

Lilies,  195. 

Lime,  32,  113,  345. 


xu 


INDEX 


Lime  toilt,  crops  for,  63. 

Linseed  meal,  composition  of,  33a. 

Live-stock,  advantages  of,  aSi;  im- 
provement of,  a8i. 

Loam,  59. 

Locust  tree,  to,  aia. 

Louisiana  Experiment  Station,  156,  157, 
159,  161. 

Machinery,  farm,  333. 

Making  butter,  336. 

Malaria  and  mosquitoes,  373. 

Mallow  family,  145. 

Manure,  effect  of  food  on,  93. 

Marigolds,  196. 

Merino  sheep,  303. 

Milk  vessels,  cleaning,  334. 

Milk,  composition  of,  333;  impurities 
in,  324;  keeping  pure,  333;  produc- 
tion of,  333;  souring  of,  338;  testing, 
333. 

Millet,  178. 

Mills  for  sugar  cane,  160. 

Minorca  breed,  313. 

Mites,  347. 

Moisture,  33,  345. 

Molds,  335. 

Mosquitoes,  354;  and  yellow  fever, 
373;   destroying,  375;   malarial,  374. 

Mosses,  55. 

Moth,  353. 

Mulberry,  308. 

Mulch,  69. 

Mules,  389. 

Muriate  of  potash,  loi,  106. 

Mustard  flower,  7. 

Narcissus,  195. 

Nasturtium,  300. 

Nitrate-dcstroj-ing  germs,  345. 

Nitrate  of  soda,  99,  106. 

Nitrogen,  33,  98,  117,  168;   fixation  of, 

90;   how  used  by  legumes,  90. 
Nitrogen -trapping  germs,  344. 
Nodules,  88,  89. 
Nut  grass,  i8a. 

Oak,  ao,  ao8,  aio. 

Oat  hay,  compositioa  of,  ja*. 


Oat  straw,  composition  of,  333. 
Oats,  II,  33,  38,  119,  lai,  136;  ctilture 

of,  139;    compositioa  of,  jaa;   smut 

of.  a33- 
Oklahoma  Experiment  Station,  181. 
Okra,  187. 
Onions,  114,  190. 
Orangeburg  soils,  61. 
Orchard,  19,  315. 
Orchard  grass,  178. 
Orpington  breed,  313. 
Osage  orange  tree,  aia. 
Ovule,  8. 
Ovule  case,  7. 
Oxygen,  34,  57- 

Pansies,  199,  aoo. 

Pastures,  179,  331. 

Pea,  10,  35,  188. 

Peach,  8,  39,  315,  333,  334. 

Peach  borer,  359. 

Peaches,  diseases  of,  339. 

Peach  tree,  316,  331,  333,  334. 

Peanut  meal,  composition  of,  333. 

Peanuts,  33,  114,  165. 

Pear  blight,  331. 

Pears,  17,  315. 

Pecans,  30,  316. 

Percheron  horses,  386. 

Perennials,  38. 

Perfume,  uses  of,  7. 

Periwinkles,  193- 

Persimmons,  Japanese,  315. 

PeUls,  8. 

Petunias,  300. 

Phlox,  199. 

Phosphate,  33,  57,  100. 

Phosphate,  add,  100,  106. 

Phosphoric  acid,  100. 

Phosphorus,  33,  100. 

Pistil,  7,  9,  13,  19. 

Plank  drag,  71. 

Plants,  food  for,  3a. 

Plowing,  depth  of,  73;  time  of,  70. 

Plums,  10,  315. 

Poisons  for  fungi,  337. 

Poland-China  hogs,  304. 

Pollen,  7,  13,  18. 

Pollination,  13,  16. 

Pomegranates,  3 16. 


INDEX 


xiu 


Popcorn,  15. 

Poplars,  propagation  of,  41. 

Poppy,  199. 

Potash,  33,  57,  loi. 

Potato,  47,  187. 

Potato  beetle,  260. 

Potato,  diseases  of,  236. 

Poultry,  food  for,  307  ;  management  of, 

306. 
Preparation  of  soil,  70. 
Principles  of  feeding  animals,  314. 
Prince's  feather,  194. 
Propagation  by  division,  38. 
Propagation  by  seed,  38. 
Protein,  315. 
Pruning  fruit  trees,  221. 
Pumpkins,  187,  322. 
Pupa  of  insects,  250. 

Ragweed,  182. 

Raspberries,  224. 

Rations,  calculating,  318;  standard, 
321. 

Red  Polled  breed,  293 . 

Red-top  grass,  178. 

Rhode  Island  Red  breed,  313. 

Rice,  322,  335;  polish  and  bran,  com- 
position of,  322. 

Road  drag,  339. 

Roads,  earth,  338;  sand-clay,  340. 

Rolling  land,  63. 

Root-hairs,  30,  31,  68. 

Roots,  22,  34. 

Rose,  10,  41,  195,  198,  227. 

Rotation,  116,  240. 

Rusts  of  grain,  234. 

Rye,  23,  138. 

Salsify,  187. 

San  Jose  scale,  259. 

Sap,  29,  34. 

Scarlet  sage,  195,  201. 

School  garden,  191,  196,  202. 

School  grounds,  196,  208. 

Score-card  for  corn,  131. 

Seed,   home-grown    best,  49;   selection 

of,  46. 
Seeds,  21,  25,  46. 
Self-binder,  333. 


Self-pollination,  15,  52. 

Sepals,  8. 

Sheep,  299. 

Shetland  ponies,  288. 

Shorthorn  cattle,  293 

Shropshire  sheep,  301. 

Shrubs,  wild,  196. 

Silt  loam,  59. 

Small  grains,  dififerences,  136,  137; 
resemblances,   136. 

Snowball,  194,  195. 

"Snow  on  the  Mountain,"  195. 

Soil,  cultivation  of,  70;  granulation  of, 
58;  how  formed,  54;  how  impov- 
erished, 82;  preparation  of,  70; 
suiting  fertilizer  to,  109. 

Soils,  54,  56,  59,  61,  62,  65,  70,  244; 
acid,  112;  properties  of,  58;  rules 
for  fertilizing,  109;  testing  for 
acidity,  113. 

Soil  survey,  64. 

Southdown  sheep,  301 . 

Sorghum,  114,  169,  180. 

Soy  beans,  180,  322. 

Spiders,  247. 

Spiraea,  195. 

Spores  of  fungi,  225. 

Spring,  227,  229. 

Squash,  19,  25. 

Stamens,  8,  19. 

Starch,  21,  315. 

Starter  in  souring  milk,  327. 

Stems  of  plants,  23. 

Stigmas,  7. 

Stock,  41. 

Strawberries,  10,  17,  217,  219. 

Subsoil  plowing,  72. 

Sugar,  315. 

Sugar  cane,  39,  84,  1 54 ;  fertilizers  for, 
158;  culture,  158;  rotation  for,  lao, 
158;   varieties,  155. 

Sulfur,  liver  of,  227. 

Sunflowers,  194. 

Sweep  rake,  334. 

Sweet  clover,  182. 

Sweet  gum,  208,  210. 

Sweet  pea,  10. 

Sweet  potatoes,  62,  187;  diseases  of, 
236;  storing,  164. 

Sweet  William,  194,  199. 


XIV 


INDEX 


Swine.  303. 
Syrup  making,  160. 

Tcrradng,  74.  75.  78. 

Thistle,  18a. 

Tick  fever,  330. 

Ticks,  on  cattle,  330. 

Timothy  hay,  ^aa. 

Tobacco,  14,  61 . 

Tomatoes,  16,  187,  190. 

Trees,  forest,  86,  ^03;  telling  age  of, 

307;   leaves  of,  a  10. 
Tubercles,  88,  89,  168. 
Turnips,  187. 
Turpentine,  boxing  for,  305,  ao6. 

Unavailable  plant  food,  56. 
Underdrains,  79. 

Vegetable  garden,  185. 

Vegetable  matter,  55,  56,  83,  117,  345. 

Velvet  beans,  184. 

Verbenas,  195,  aoo. 


Vetches,  77,  176. 
Violets,  195,  199. 

Walnut  tree,  aia,  813. 

Washes  in  fields,  63,  74,  76. 

Water,  current,  30;    forming  soil,  54; 

how  lifted,  ag;   how  used,  a8;   kinds 

of,  65 ;   lost  by  leaves,  a8 ;   movement 

in  soil,  66. 
Watermelons,  113,  166;  wilt  of,  167. 
Weeder,  ia6. 
Weeds,  116,  18a. 
Weevil,  Mexican  cotton-boll,  364. 
Wheat,  la,  33,  114,  118,  lai,  138;   cul> 

ture  of,  139;   diseases  of,  333. 
Wheat  bran,  composition  of,  333. 
Wheat  shorts,  composition  of,  3aa. 
Wheat  straw,  composition  of,  333. 
Window  gardens,  aoi . 
Wistaria,  193. 
Wyandotte  breed,  31a. 

Yeast,  338. 


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Regions 4.00  net 

Isaac  P.  Roberts'  The  Farmstead  .        .        .       1.50  net 

On  Tillage,  etc. 

F.  H.  King's  The  Soil I1.25  net 

Isaac  P.  Roberts'  The  Fertility  of  the  Land  .1.25  net 

Elwood  Mead's  Irrigation  Institutions  .  .  .1.25  net 
F.  H.  King's  Irrigation  and  Drainage  .  .  .  1.50  net 
Wm.  E.  Smythe's  The  Conquest  of  Arid  America  .  1.50  net 
Edward  B.  Voorhees'  Fertilizers  .         .         .         .1.25  net 

Edward  B.  Voorhees'  Forage  Crops  .  .  .  .1.50  net 
H.  Snyder's  Chemistry  of  Plant  and  Animal  Life  1.25  net 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Principles  of  Agriculture  .         .1.25  net 

W.  C.  Welborn's  Elements  of  Agriculture,  Southern  and 

Western 75  net 


On  Plant  Diseases,  etc. 

George  Massee's  Plant  Diseases $1.60  net 

E.  C.  Lodeman's  The  Spraying  of  Plants     .         .         .1.25  net 
H.  M.  Ward's  Disease  in  Plants  (English)  .  .1.60  net 

A.  S.  Packard's  A  Text-book  on  Entomology     .         .  4.50  net 

On  Production  of  New  Plants 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Plant  Breeding >l.25  net 

L.  H.  Bailey's  The  Survival  of  the  Unlike  .         .         .  2.00 

L.  H.  Bailey's  The  Evolution  of  our  Native  Fruits      .  2.00 

W.  S.  Harwood's  New  Creations  in  Plant  Life    .         .  I.75  net 

On  Garden  Making 

L  H.  Bailey's  Practical  Garden  Book          .        .         .  $tJOO 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Garden  Making 1.50  net 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Vegetable  Gardening  ....  1.50  net 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Horticulturist's  Rule  Book  ...  .75 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Forcing  Book 1.25  net 

A.  French'*  Book  of  Vegetables          ....  1.75  net 


On  Fruit-growing,  etc. 

L.  H,  Bailey's  Nursery  Book I1.50  net 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Fruit-growing      .         .         .         .         .  1.50  net 

L.  H .  Bailey's  The  Pruning  Book       .        .         .        .  1 .50 

F.  W.  Card's  Bush  Fruits 1.50  net 

On  the  Care  of  Live  Stock 

Nelson  S.  Mayo's  The  Diseases  of  Animals          .         .  Ji .5.0  net 

W.  H.  Jordan's  The  Feeding  of  Animals     .         .         .  1.50  net 

I.  P.  Roberts'  The  Horse   ......  1.25  net 

George  C.  Watson's  Farm  Poultry       ....  1,25  net 

On  Dairy  Work 

Henry  H.  Wing's  Milk  and  Its  Products     .         .         .     J  1.50  net 
C.  M.  Aikman's  Milk  .         .         .         .         .         .1.25 

Harry  Snyder's  Dairy  Chemistry  ....       i.oo  net 

W.  D.  Frost's  Laboratory  Guide  in  Elementary  Bacteri- 
ology       1.60  net 

On  Economics  and  Organization 

Henry  C.  Taylor's  Agricultural  Economics.         .  .     ^1.25  net 

I.  P.  Roberts'  The  Farmer's  Business  Handbook  .        1.25  net 

George  T.  Fairchild's  Rural  Wealth  and  Welfare  .       1.25 

S.  E.  Sparling's  Business  Organization         .         .  .1.25  net 

In  the  Citizen's  Library.     Includes  a  chapter  on  Farming. 

On  Everything  Agricultural 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture  : 
Vol.  I.    Farms,  Climates,  and  Soils. 
Vol.  II.    Farm  Crops. 

To  be  complete  in  four  royal  8vo  volumes,  with  over  3000  illustrations. 

Price  of  sets :  Qoth,  $20  net ;  half-morocco,  $32  net. 


For  further  information  as  to  any  of  the  above, 
address  the  publishers 

THE    MACMTLLAN    COMPANY 

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